Logical operations: Difference between revisions
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=={{header|UNIX Shell}}==
The shell has at least two levels of logical operators. Conditional logic (<tt>if</tt>, <tt>while</tt>, <tt>&&</tt> and <tt>||</tt> at the statement level) operates on commands; the commands are executed, and their exit status determines their value in a Boolean context. If they return an exit code of 0, signaling successful execution, that is considered a "true" result; if they return a nonzero exit code, signaling a failure condition, that is considered a "false" result. However, these results are not returned as a Boolean value. <tt>if command; then do something; fi</tt> will do something if the
{{works with|Bourne Again SHell}}
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1 or 0 = 1
not 1 = 0</pre>
=={{header|V}}==
|
Revision as of 03:35, 15 August 2022
![Task](http://static.miraheze.org/rosettacodewiki/thumb/b/ba/Rcode-button-task-crushed.png/64px-Rcode-button-task-crushed.png)
You are encouraged to solve this task according to the task description, using any language you may know.
Basic Data Operation
This is a basic data operation. It represents a fundamental action on a basic data type.
You may see other such operations in the Basic Data Operations category, or:
Integer Operations
Arithmetic |
Comparison
Boolean Operations
Bitwise |
Logical
String Operations
Concatenation |
Interpolation |
Comparison |
Matching
Memory Operations
Pointers & references |
Addresses
- Task
Write a function that takes two logical (boolean) values, and outputs the result of "and" and "or" on both arguments as well as "not" on the first arguments.
If the programming language doesn't provide a separate type for logical values, use the type most commonly used for that purpose.
If the language supports additional logical operations on booleans such as XOR, list them as well.
11l
<lang 11l>F logic(a, b)
print(‘a and b: ’(a & b)) print(‘a or b: ’(a | b)) print(‘not a: ’(!a))</lang>
360 Assembly
Assembler 360 offers a full set of opcodes for logical operations: or, and, xor (exclusive or). The "not" can be done by inversing the branching: BNE (Branch Not Equal) instead of BE (Branch Equal). An othe way to perform a not is to use a xor with the true value (X'FF').
Op-codes Or And Xor --- --- --- Memory to memory OC NC XC Memory to register O N X Immediate OI NI XI
An example:
<lang 360asm>* Logical operations 04/04/2017
LOGICAL CSECT
USING LOGICAL,R15
- -- C=A and B
MVC C,A C=A NC C,B C=A and B
- -- C=A or B
MVC C,A C=A OC C,B C=A or B
- -- C=not A
MVC C,A C=A XI C,X'01' C=not A
- -- if C then goto e
CLI C,X'01' if C BE E then goto e XPRNT =C'FALSE',5
E BR R14 TRUE DC X'01' FALSE DC X'00' A DC X'01' B DC X'00' C DS X PG DC CL80' '
YREGS END LOGICAL</lang>
- Output:
FALSE
6502 Assembly
There are no built-in boolean types; however, supporting the concept in software is trivial. Typically, the zero flag or the carry flag can act as a boolean, with zero being false and nonzero being true.
<lang 6502asm>LDA myBoolean BNE isTrue
- code that would execute if myBoolean is false, goes here.
RTS isTrue:
- code that would execute if myBoolean is true, goes here.
RTS </lang>
Branches Based On Equality to Zero
A logical AND can easily be implemented as a nested if. Here, we'll be executing the following pseudocode. For this example, all variables are one byte in size.
<lang C>if(myValue == 3 && myOtherValue == 5){ myResult = true; }</lang> <lang 6502asm>LDA myValue CMP #3 BNE .skip
- if we got to here, "myValue == 3" evaluated to true.
LDA myOtherValue CMP #5 BNE .skip
- if we got to here, both "myValue == 3" and "myOtherValue" == 5 evaluated to true.
STA myResult ;any nonzero value is considered TRUE, so we've stored 5 into myResult.
.skip:</lang>
A logical OR is somewhat similar. <lang C>if(myValue == 3 || myOtherValue == 5){ myResult = true; }</lang> <lang 6502asm>LDA myValue CMP #3 BEQ .doTheThing
- if not equal, check myOtherValue
LDA myOtherValue CMP #5 BNE .skip
- if we got to here, either "myValue == 3" or "myOtherValue" == 5 evaluated to true.
.doTheThing: STA myResult ;any nonzero value is considered TRUE, so we've stored 5 into myResult.
.skip:</lang>
Logical NOT is the easiest of all; just use the opposite branch condition.
Using Bit Shifts
Chances are, however, on an 8-bit computer like the 6502, rather than using an entire byte to represent a single variable, you're going to store up to 8 related booleans in a single byte. Variables such as these are often called "bit flags" and is very common for parameters that are passed to/from external hardware, such as joysticks, video display processors, or sound cards. Each bit typically represents a different yet related variable. For example, reading a one-button joystick returns 5 bits, one for the "fire button" and the 4 directions.
Side note: For joysticks, it's actually more common for 0 to represent pressed and 1 to represent not pressed, but that's out of the scope of this task.
For testing multiple bits, a simple BNE
or BEQ
won't cut it, as this doesn't tell you WHICH bits are 0 or 1, only that a 1 exists/doesn't exist somewhere in the byte (which, if you need that info specifically, can be a nice shortcut.)
In this example, we'll be testing the bottom 2 bits of the 8-bit variable "Flags", and we want to test if both bits are 1.
<lang 6502asm>LDA flags LSR ;test the rightmost bit. BCC .skip LSR ;test the bit just to the left of the one we tested prior. BCC .skip
- your code for what happens when both of the bottom 2 bits are 1, goes here.
.skip:</lang>
Using BIT
If we're testing the top 2 bits of a byte (usually referred to as bit 7 or 6) then there's a special method we can use. The BIT instruction sets the N flag to bit 7 of the tested byte, and the V flag to bit 6 of the tested byte. <lang 6502asm>BIT myBitFlags BMI .Bit7Set BVS .Bit6Set</lang>
For this reason, it's a good strategy when designing a bit flags variable to put the bits you'll be testing the most in bit 7 or 6 so that you spend less time checking them.
ACL2
<lang lisp>(defun logical-ops (a b)
(progn$ (cw "(and a b) = ~x0~%" (and a b)) (cw "(or a b) = ~x0~%" (or a b)) (cw "(not a) = ~x0~%" (not a))))</lang>
Action!
<lang Action!>BYTE FUNC Not(BYTE a)
IF a=0 THEN RETURN (1) FI
RETURN (0)
PROC Main()
BYTE a,b,res
FOR a=0 TO 1 DO FOR b=0 TO 1 DO res=a AND b PrintF("%B AND %B=%B",a,b,res) res=a OR b PrintF("|%B OR %B=%B",a,b,res) res=a ! b PrintF("|%B XOR %B=%B",a,b,res) res=Not(a) PrintF("|NOT %B=%B%E",a,res) OD OD
RETURN</lang>
- Output:
Screenshot from Atari 8-bit computer
0 AND 0=0|0 OR 0=0|0 XOR 0=0|NOT 0=1 0 AND 1=0|0 OR 1=1|0 XOR 1=1|NOT 0=1 1 AND 0=0|1 OR 0=1|1 XOR 0=1|NOT 1=0 1 AND 1=1|1 OR 1=1|1 XOR 1=0|NOT 1=0
Ada
I have also included logical xor because it is defined for Ada boolean types. All the operators below work equally well on arrays of boolean types. In fact, a packed array of boolean is an array of bits, providing a direct link between logical and bitwise operations.
<lang ada>procedure Print_Logic(A : Boolean; B : Boolean) is begin
Put_Line("A and B is " & Boolean'Image(A and B)); Put_Line("A or B is " & Boolean'Image(A or B)); Put_Line("A xor B is " & Boolean'Image(A xor B)); Put_Line("not A is " & Boolean'Image(not A));
end Print_Logic;</lang>
Agda
<lang agda>module AndOrNot where
open import Data.Bool open import Data.Product
test : Bool → Bool → Bool × Bool × Bool test x y = x ∧ y , x ∨ y , not x</lang>
e.g.
test true false ⇒ false , true , false
Aikido
<lang aikido> function logic(a,b) {
println("a AND b: " + (a && b)) println("a OR b: " + (a || b)) println("NOT a: " + (!a))
} </lang>
Aime
<lang aime>void out(integer a, integer b) {
o_integer(a && b); o_byte('\n'); o_integer(a || b); o_byte('\n'); o_integer(!a); o_byte('\n');
}</lang>
ALGOL 68
<lang algol68>PROC print_logic = (BOOL a, b)VOID: (
- for a 6-7 bit/byte compiler #
printf(($"a and b is "gl$, a AND b); printf(($"a or b is "gl$, a OR b); printf(($"not a is "gl$, NOT a); printf(($"a equivalent to b is "gl$, a EQ b); printf(($"a not equivalent to b is "gl$, a NE b);
- Alternatively ASCII #
printf(($"a and b is "gl$, a & b); printf(($"a and b is "gl$, a /\ b); printf(($"a or b is "gl$, a \/ b); printf(($"a equivalent to b "gl$, a = b); printf(($"a not equivalent to b "gl$, a /= b);
¢ for a European 8 bit/byte charcter set eg. ALCOR or GOST ¢
printf(($"a and b is "gl$, a ∧ b); printf(($"a or b is "gl$, a ∨ b); printf(($"not a is "gl$, ¬ a) printf(($"a not equivalent to b is "gl$, a ≠ b)
)</lang>
ALGOL W
<lang algolw>procedure booleanOperations( logical value a, b ) ;
begin
% algol W has the usual "and", "or" and "not" operators % write( a, " and ", b, ": ", a and b ); write( a, " or ", b, ": ", a or b ); write( " not ", a, ": ", not a );
% logical values can be compared with the = and not = operators % % a not = b can be used for a xor b % write( a, " xor ", b, ": ", a not = b ); write( a, " equ ", b, ": ", a = b );
end booleanOperations ;</lang>
Amazing Hopper
<lang Amazing Hopper>
- include <hopper.h>
main:
a=0, b=1 // a and b have some values...
{"values A=",a,", B=",b} println
{"AND : ",a,b} and, println {"OR : ",a,b} or, println {"XOR : ",a,b} xor, println {"NAND: ",a,b} nand, println {"NOR : ",a,b} nor, println {"NOT A: ",a}not, println {"NOT B: ",b}not, println x=-1,{3,3} rand array(x), mulby(10),ceil,gthan(5),mov(x) y=-1,{3,3} rand array(y), mulby(10),ceil,gthan(5),mov(y)
{"\nArrays\nX:\n",x,"\nY:\n",y}println
{"AND :\n",x,y} and, println {"OR :\n",x,y} or, println {"XOR :\n",x,y} xor, println {"NAND:\n",x,y} nand, println {"NOR :\n",x,y} nor, println {"NOT X :\n",x} not, println {"NOT Y :\n",y} not, println
exit(0) </lang>
- Output:
values A=0, B=1 AND : 0 OR : 1 XOR : 1 NAND: 1 NOR : 0 NOT A: 1 NOT B: 0 Arrays X: 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 Y: 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 AND : 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 OR : 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 XOR : 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 NAND: 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 NOR : 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 NOT X : 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 NOT Y : 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1
Apex
<lang Java>boolean a = true; boolean b = false; System.Debug('a AND b: ' + (a && b)); System.Debug('a OR b: ' + (a || b)); System.Debug('NOT a: ' + (!a)); System.Debug('a XOR b: ' + (a ^ b)); </lang>
APL
APL represents Boolean values using 1 and 0. This function takes Boolean arguments before it and after it—which may be arrays of Booleans—and returns an array consisting of arg1 AND arg2, arg1 OR arg2, NOT arg1, arg1 NAND arg2, arg1 NOR arg2, and arg1 XOR arg2, in that order. <lang apl> LOGICALOPS←{(⍺∧⍵)(⍺∨⍵)(~⍺)(⍺⍲⍵)(⍺⍱⍵)(⍺≠⍵)}</lang>
ARM Assembly
<lang ARM Assembly> /* ARM assembly Raspberry PI */ /* program logicoper.s */ /* Constantes */ .equ STDOUT, 1 .equ WRITE, 4 .equ EXIT, 1 /* Initialized data */ .data szMessResultAnd: .asciz "Result of And : \n" szMessResultOr: .asciz "Result of Or : \n" szMessResultEor: .asciz "Result of Exclusive Or : \n" szMessResultNot: .asciz "Result of Not : \n" szMessResultClear: .asciz "Result of Bit Clear : \n"
sMessAffBin: .ascii "Register value : " sZoneBin: .space 36,' '
.asciz "\n"
/* code section */ .text .global main main: /* entry of program */
push {fp,lr} /* save 2 registers */
mov r0,#0b1100 @ binary value 1 mov r1,#0b0110 @ binary value 2 bl logicfunc
100: @ standard end of the program
mov r0,#0 @ return code pop {fp,lr} @ restore 2 registers mov r7,#EXIT @ request to exit program swi 0 @ perform the system call
/******************************************************************/ /* logics functions */ /******************************************************************/ /* r0 contains the first value */ /* r1 contains the second value */ logicfunc:
push {r2,lr} @ save registers mov r2,r0 @ save value 1 in r2 ldr r0,iAdrszMessResultAnd @ and bl affichageMess mov r0,r2 @ load value 1 in r0 and r0,r1 bl affichage2 ldr r0,iAdrszMessResultOr @ or bl affichageMess mov r0,r2 orr r0,r1 bl affichage2 ldr r0,iAdrszMessResultEor @ exclusive or bl affichageMess mov r0,r2 eor r0,r1 bl affichage2 ldr r0,iAdrszMessResultNot @ not bl affichageMess mov r0,r2 mvn r0,r1 bl affichage2 ldr r0,iAdrszMessResultClear @ bit clear bl affichageMess mov r0,r2 bic r0,r1 bl affichage2
100:
pop {r2,lr} @ restore registers bx lr
iAdrszMessResultAnd: .int szMessResultAnd iAdrszMessResultOr: .int szMessResultOr iAdrszMessResultEor: .int szMessResultEor iAdrszMessResultNot: .int szMessResultNot iAdrszMessResultClear: .int szMessResultClear /******************************************************************/ /* register display in binary */ /******************************************************************/ /* r0 contains the register */ affichage2:
push {r0,lr} /* save registers */ push {r1-r5} /* save other registers */ mrs r5,cpsr /* saves state register in r5 */ ldr r1,iAdrsZoneBin mov r2,#0 @ read bit position counter mov r3,#0 @ position counter of the written character
1: @ loop
lsls r0,#1 @ left shift with flags movcc r4,#48 @ flag carry off character '0' movcs r4,#49 @ flag carry on character '1' strb r4,[r1,r3] @ character -> display zone add r2,r2,#1 @ + 1 read bit position counter add r3,r3,#1 @ + 1 position counter of the written character cmp r2,#8 @ 8 bits read addeq r3,r3,#1 @ + 1 position counter of the written character cmp r2,#16 @ etc addeq r3,r3,#1 cmp r2,#24 addeq r3,r3,#1 cmp r2,#31 @ 32 bits shifted ? ble 1b @ no -> loop
ldr r0,iAdrsZoneMessBin @ address of message result bl affichageMess @ display result
100:
msr cpsr,r5 /* restore state register */ pop {r1-r5} /* restore other registers */ pop {r0,lr} bx lr
iAdrsZoneBin: .int sZoneBin iAdrsZoneMessBin: .int sMessAffBin
/******************************************************************/ /* display text with size calculation */ /******************************************************************/ /* r0 contains the address of the message */ affichageMess:
push {fp,lr} /* save registers */ push {r0,r1,r2,r7} /* save others registers */ mov r2,#0 /* counter length */
1: /* loop length calculation */
ldrb r1,[r0,r2] /* read byte start position + index */ cmp r1,#0 /* if 0 it's over */ addne r2,r2,#1 /* else add 1 to the length */ bne 1b /* and loop */ /* so here r2 contains the length of the message */ mov r1,r0 /* address message in r1 */ mov r0,#STDOUT /* code to write to the standard output */ mov r7,#WRITE /* "write" system call */ swi #0 /* system call */ pop {r0,r1,r2,r7} /* restore other registers */ pop {fp,lr} /* restore 2 registers */ bx lr /* return */
</lang>
Arturo
<lang rebol>logic: function [a b][ print ["a AND b =" and? a b] print ["a OR b =" or? a b] print ["NOT a = " not? a] ]
logic true false</lang>
- Output:
a AND b = false a OR b = true NOT a = false
Asymptote
<lang Asymptote>bool a = true; bool b = false;
write(a & b); write(a && b); //(with conditional evaluation of right-hand argument) write(a | b); write(a || b); //(with conditional evaluation of right-hand argument) write(a ^ b); write(!a);</lang>
AutoHotkey
<lang AutoHotkey>a = 1 b = 0 msgbox % "a and b is " . (a && b) msgbox % "a or b is " . (a || b) msgbox % "not a is " . (!a)</lang>
Avail
Avail provides logical operators to cover all possibilities of a two-argument truth table. (Hence there are 12 entries below, plus the 4 ommitted for the trivial a
, b
, true
, and false
= 2^4.)
<lang Avail>Method "logic ops_,_" is
[
a : boolean; b : boolean;
|
Print: "not a: " ++ “¬a”; Print: "not b: " ++ “¬b”; Print: "a and b: " ++ “a ∧ b”; Print: "a or b: " ++ “a ∨ b”; Print: "a nand b: " ++ “a ↑ b”; Print: "a nor b: " ++ “a ↓ b”; Print: "a implies b: " ++ “a → b”; // = not a OR b Print: "a is implied b b: " ++ “a ← b”; // = a OR not b Print: "a does not imply b: " ++ “a ↛ b”; // = a AND not b Print: "a is not implied by b: " ++ “a ↚ b”; // not a AND b Print: "a xor b: " ++ “a ⊕ b”; // equivalent to a ≠ b Print: "a biconditional b: " ++ “a ↔ b”; // equivalent to a = b
];</lang>
AWK
<lang awk>$ awk '{print "and:"($1&&$2),"or:"($1||$2),"not:"!$1}' 0 0 and:0 or:0 not:1 0 1 and:0 or:1 not:1 1 0 and:0 or:1 not:0 1 1 and:1 or:1 not:0</lang>
Axe
<lang axe>Lbl LOGIC r₁→A r₂→B Disp "AND:",(A?B)▶Dec,i Disp "OR:",(A??B)▶Dec,i Disp "NOT:",(A?0,1)▶Dec,i Return</lang>
Note that unlike TI-83 BASIC, the "and", "or", "xor", and "not(" tokens in Axe are bitwise operators, not logical operators.
BASIC
Commodore BASIC
In Commodore BASIC the "logical" operators are actually bitwise operators; to enable the proper semantics when they're used for logic, true expressions return -1 (all bits set) and false expressions return 0 (all bits clear). <lang qbasic>10 A = -1 20 B = 0 30 PRINT A AND B 40 PRINT A OR B 50 PRINT (A AND (NOT B)) OR ((NOT A) AND B) 60 PRINT NOT A</lang>
- Output:
0 -1 -1 0
Commodore BASIC version 7 for the C-128 added XOR, but it's a function, and for some reason was written to accept only unsigned (16-bit) numbers.
<lang basic>70 PRINT XOR(1, 0)</lang>
- Output:
1
BASIC256
<lang BASIC256>a = true b = false print a and b print a or b print a xor b print not a</lang>
BBC BASIC
<lang bbcbasic> PROClogic(FALSE, FALSE)
PROClogic(FALSE, TRUE) PROClogic(TRUE, FALSE) PROClogic(TRUE, TRUE) END DEF PROClogic(a%, b%) LOCAL @% : @% = 2 : REM Column width PRINT a% " AND " b% " = " a% AND b% TAB(20); PRINT a% " OR " b% " = " a% OR b% TAB(40); PRINT a% " EOR " b% " = " a% EOR b% TAB(60); PRINT " NOT " a% " = " NOT a% ENDPROC</lang>
- Output:
0 AND 0 = 0 0 OR 0 = 0 0 EOR 0 = 0 NOT 0 = -1 0 AND -1 = 0 0 OR -1 = -1 0 EOR -1 = -1 NOT 0 = -1 -1 AND 0 = 0 -1 OR 0 = -1 -1 EOR 0 = -1 NOT -1 = 0 -1 AND -1 = -1 -1 OR -1 = -1 -1 EOR -1 = 0 NOT -1 = 0
IS-BASIC
<lang IS-BASIC>100 LET A=-1 110 LET B=0 120 PRINT A AND B 130 PRINT A OR B 140 PRINT (A AND(NOT B)) OR((NOT A) AND B) 150 PRINT NOT A 160 PRINT 15 BAND 4 170 PRINT 2 BOR 15 180 PRINT (A BOR B)-(A BAND B) ! xor</lang>
QBasic
No booleans in BASIC... these are integers. -1 for True 0 for False. <lang qbasic>b1 = -1 b2 = 0 PRINT b1 AND b2 PRINT b1 OR b2 PRINT NOT b1</lang>
Yabasic
<lang yabasic>b1 = true //value of 1 b2 = false //value of 0 print b1 and b2 print b1 or b2 print not b1</lang>
QuickBASIC
<lang qbasic>SUB logic (a%, b%) 'no booleans in BASIC...these are integers. 1 for true 0 for false.
PRINT a AND b PRINT a OR b PRINT NOT a
END SUB</lang>
FreeBASIC
In addition to And, Or and Not FreeBASIC supports several other logical operators:
- XOr - Exclusive Or : true if both operands are different, false if they're the same
- Eqv - Equivalence : true if both operands are the same, false if they're different
- Imp - Implication : true unless the first operand is true and the second operand is false when it is false
There are also 'short-circuiting' operators:
- AndAlso - Same as AND but the second operand is only evaluated if the first is true
- OrElse - Same as OR but the second operand is only evaluated if the first is false
The following program illustrates the use of these operators:
<lang freebasic>' FB 1.05.0 Win64
Sub logicalDemo(b1 As Boolean, b2 As Boolean)
Print "b1 = "; b1 Print "b2 = "; b2 Print "b1 And b2 = "; b1 And b2 Print "b1 Or b2 = "; b1 Or b2 Print "b1 XOr b2 = "; b1 Xor b2 Print "b1 Eqv b2 = "; b1 Eqv b2 Print "b1 Imp b2 = "; b1 Imp b2 Print "Not b1 = "; Not b1 Print "b1 AndAlso b2 = "; b1 AndAlso b2 Print "b1 OrElse b2 = "; b1 OrElse b2 Print
End Sub
Dim b1 As Boolean = True Dim b2 As Boolean = True logicalDemo b1, b2 b2 = False logicalDemo b1, b2 b1 = False logicalDemo b1, b2 b2 = True logicalDemo b1, b2 Print "Press any key to quit" Sleep</lang>
- Output:
b1 = true b2 = true b1 And b2 = true b1 Or b2 = true b1 XOr b2 = false b1 Eqv b2 = true b1 Imp b2 = true Not b1 = false b1 AndAlso b2 = true b1 OrElse b2 = true b1 = true b2 = false b1 And b2 = false b1 Or b2 = true b1 XOr b2 = true b1 Eqv b2 = false b1 Imp b2 = false Not b1 = false b1 AndAlso b2 = false b1 OrElse b2 = true b1 = false b2 = false b1 And b2 = false b1 Or b2 = false b1 XOr b2 = false b1 Eqv b2 = true b1 Imp b2 = true Not b1 = true b1 AndAlso b2 = false b1 OrElse b2 = false b1 = false b2 = true b1 And b2 = false b1 Or b2 = true b1 XOr b2 = true b1 Eqv b2 = false b1 Imp b2 = true Not b1 = true b1 AndAlso b2 = false b1 OrElse b2 = true
bc
POSIX bc has neither Boolean values nor built-in logical operations. Thus one has to write them oneself: <lang bc>/* The following three functions assume 0 is false and 1 is true */
/* And */ define a(x, y) {
return(x * y)
}
/* Or */ define o(x, y) {
return(x + y - x * y)
}
/* Not */ define n(x) {
return(1 - x)
}
define f(a, b) {
"a and b: " a(a, b) "a or b: " o(a, b) "not a: " n(a)
}</lang>
GNU bc's extensions make this task much easier: <lang bc>define logic_test(a, b) {
print "a and b: ", a && b, "\n" print "a or b: ", a || b, "\n" print "not a: ", !a, "\n"
}</lang>
Bracmat
Bracmat has no boolean values. Instead, each expression has, apart from its value, also a S/F/I (SUCCEEDED/FAILED/IGNORE) feature, where the latter is used in the exceptional case that the success or failure of an expression should not influence the program flow.
The expression ~
is special in that it always fails. Most expressions only fail in exceptional cases, such as when a file cannot be opened. Match expressions stand apart from the rest and can be compared to expressions with comparison operations in other languages.
In the example below, the empty string represents 'true' and ~
represents 'false'. The binary operators &
and |
, which normally are used as the glue between expressions such as match operations, function definitions and function calls, are used as the logical operators 'and' and 'or', respectively.
<lang bracmat>( ( Logic
= x y . '$arg:(=?x,?y) & str $ ( "\n(x,y)=" !arg ( ":\n" "x and y -> " ( (!x&!y)&true | false ) ) ( \n "x or y -> " ( (!x|!y)&true | false ) ) "\nnot x -> " (~!x&true|false) ) )
& out$(Logic$(,)) & out$(Logic$(~,)) & out$(Logic$(,~)) & out$(Logic$(~,~)) );</lang>
- Output:
(x,y)=(,): x and y -> true x or y -> true not x -> false (x,y)=(~,): x and y -> false x or y -> true not x -> true (x,y)=(,~): x and y -> false x or y -> true not x -> false (x,y)=(~,~): x and y -> false x or y -> false not x -> true
Brat
<lang brat>logic = { a, b |
p "a and b: #{ a && b }" p "a or b: #{ a || b }" p "not a: #{ not a }"
}</lang>
C
<lang c>void print_logic(int a, int b) {
printf("a and b is %d\n", a && b); printf("a or b is %d\n", a || b); printf("not a is %d\n", !a);
}</lang>
C#
<lang csharp>using System;
namespace LogicalOperations {
class Program { static void Main(string[] args) { bool a = true, b = false; Console.WriteLine("a and b is {0}", a && b); Console.WriteLine("a or b is {0}", a || b); Console.WriteLine("Not a is {0}", !a); Console.WriteLine("a exclusive-or b is {0}", a ^ b); } }
}</lang>
C++
<lang cpp>void print_logic(bool a, bool b) {
std::cout << std::boolalpha; // so that bools are written as "true" and "false" std::cout << "a and b is " << (a && b) << "\n"; std::cout << "a or b is " << (a || b) << "\n"; std::cout << "not a is " << (!a) << "\n";
}</lang>
Clipper
<lang clipper> Function Foo( a, b )
// a and b was defined as .F. (false) or .T. (true) ? a .AND. b ? a .OR. b ? .NOT. a, .NOT. b Return Nil
</lang>
Clojure
<lang clojure> (defn logical [a b]
(prn (str "a and b is " (and a b))) (prn (str "a or b is " (or a b))) (prn (str "not a is " (not a))))
(logical true false) </lang>
COBOL
Logical operations in COBOL are exactly the same as bitwise operations. <lang cobol> IDENTIFICATION DIVISION.
PROGRAM-ID. print-logic.
DATA DIVISION. LOCAL-STORAGE SECTION. 01 result PIC 1 USAGE BIT.
LINKAGE SECTION. 01 a PIC 1 USAGE BIT. 01 b PIC 1 USAGE BIT.
PROCEDURE DIVISION USING a, b. COMPUTE result = a B-AND b DISPLAY "a and b is " result
COMPUTE result = a B-OR b DISPLAY "a or b is " result
COMPUTE result = B-NOT a DISPLAY "Not a is " result
COMPUTE result = a B-XOR b DISPLAY "a exclusive-or b is " result
GOBACK .</lang>
ColdFusion
<lang cfm><cffunction name = "logic" hint = "Performs basic logical operations">
<cfargument name = "a" required = "yes" type = "boolean" /> <cfargument name = "a" required = "yes" type = "boolean" /> <cfoutput> 'A' AND 'B' is #a AND b#< br /> 'A' OR 'B' is #a OR b#< br /> NOT 'A' is #!a# </cfoutput>
</cffunction></lang>
Common Lisp
<lang lisp>(defun logic (a b)
(print "a and b is") (write (and a b)) (print "a or b is" ) (write (or a b)) (print "not a is" ) (write (not a)))</lang>
D
<lang d>import std.stdio;
void logic(T, U)(T lhs, U rhs) {
writefln("'%s' is of type '%s', '%s' is of type '%s';", lhs, typeid(typeof(lhs)), rhs,typeid(typeof(rhs))); writefln("\t'%s' AND '%s' is %s, ", lhs, rhs, lhs && rhs); writefln("\t'%s' OR '%s' is %s, ", lhs, rhs, lhs || rhs); writefln("\tNOT '%s' is %s.\n", lhs, !lhs);
}
class C { int value; }
void main() {
bool theTruth = true; bool theLie = false; real zeroReal = 0.0L; real NaN; // D initializes floating point values to NaN int zeroInt = 0; real[] nullArr = null; string emptyStr = ""; string nullStr = null; C someC = new C; C nullC = null;
// Note: Struct is value type in D, but composite // so no default bool equivalent.
logic(theTruth, theLie); logic(zeroReal, NaN); logic(zeroInt, nullArr); logic(nullStr, emptyStr); logic(someC, nullC);
}</lang>
- Output:
'true' is of type 'bool', 'false' is of type 'bool'; 'true' AND 'false' is false, 'true' OR 'false' is true, NOT 'true' is false. '0' is of type 'real', 'nan' is of type 'real'; '0' AND 'nan' is false, '0' OR 'nan' is true, NOT '0' is true. '0' is of type 'int', '[]' is of type 'real[]'; '0' AND '[]' is false, '0' OR '[]' is false, NOT '0' is true. '' is of type 'immutable(char)[]', '' is of type 'immutable(char)[]'; '' AND '' is false, '' OR '' is true, NOT '' is true. 'logical_operations.C' is of type 'logical_operations.C', 'null' is of type 'logical_operations.C'; 'logical_operations.C' AND 'null' is false, 'logical_operations.C' OR 'null' is true, NOT 'logical_operations.C' is false.
Dc
<lang dc>[ 1 q ] sT
[ 0=T 0 ] s! [ l! x S@ l! x L@ + l! x ] s& [ l! x S@ l! x L@ * l! x ] s|
[ 48 + P ] s.
[ Sb Sa
la l. x [ ] P lb l. x [ ] P la lb l& x l. x [ ] P la Lb l| x l. x [ ] P La l! x l. x A P
] sF
[a b a&b a|b !a] P A P 0 0 lF x 0 1 lF x 1 0 lF x 1 1 lF x</lang>
- Output:
a b a&b a|b !a 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
Delphi
Delphi supports all logical operators shown in § Pascal. Furthermore, the exclusive or operator xor is supported: <lang delphi> { exclusive or } writeLn(A:5, ' xor', B:6, ' yields', A xor B:7);</lang> Beware: In Delphi the operators and, or and xor can also refer to bitwise operations.
DWScript
<lang Delphi>var a := True; var b := False;
Print('a = '); PrintLn(a); Print('b = '); PrintLn(b);
Print('a AND b: '); PrintLn(a AND b);
Print('a OR b: '); PrintLn(a OR b);
Print('NOT a: '); PrintLn(NOT a);
Print('a XOR b: '); PrintLn(a XOR b);</lang>
- Output:
a = True b = False a AND b: False a OR b: True NOT a: False a XOR b: True
Dyalect
<lang dyalect>var a = true var b = false print("a and b is \(a && b)") print("a or b is \(a || b)") print("Not a is \(!a)")</lang>
Déjà Vu
<lang dejavu>showbool a b:
!.( a b or a b and a b xor a b not a )
for a in [ false true ]:
for b in [ false true ]: showbool a b</lang>
- Output:
true true true true false false true false true false true false false true true false true true false false false false false true
E
<lang e>def logicalOperations(a :boolean, b :boolean) {
return ["and" => a & b, "or" => a | b, "not" => !a, "xor" => a ^ b]
}</lang>
Each of these is a method on boolean objects; the above is precisely equivalent to:
<lang e>def logicalOperations(a :boolean, b :boolean) {
return ["and" => a.and(b), "or" => a.or(b), "not" => a.not(), "xor" => a.xor(b)]
}</lang>
If the :boolean
guards were removed, these operations would also work on other types, such as sets (& is union and | is intersection; not
is not supported).
EasyLang
<lang>func logic a b . .
if a = 1 and b = 1 r1 = 1 . if a = 1 or b = 1 r2 = 1 . if a = 0 r3 = 1 . print r1 & " " & r2 & " " & r3
. call logic 0 0 call logic 0 1 call logic 1 0 call logic 1 1</lang>
ECL
<lang ECL> LogicalOperations(BOOLEAN A,BOOLEAN B) := FUNCTION
ANDit := A AND B; ORit := A OR B; NOTA := NOT A; XORit := (A OR B) AND NOT (A AND B); DS := DATASET([{A,B,'A AND B is:',ANDit}, {A,B,'A OR B is:',ORit}, {A,B,'NOT A is:',NOTA}, {A,B,'A XOR B is:',XORit}], {BOOLEAN AVal,BOOLEAN BVal,STRING11 valuetype,BOOLEAN val}); RETURN DS;
END;
LogicalOperations(FALSE,FALSE); LogicalOperations(FALSE,TRUE); LogicalOperations(TRUE,FALSE); LogicalOperations(TRUE,TRUE); LogicalOperations(1>2,1=1); //Boolean expressions are also valid here </lang>
Efene
<lang efene>compare_bool = fn (A, B) {
io.format("~p and ~p = ~p~n", [A, B, A and B]) io.format("~p or ~p = ~p~n", [A, B, A or B]) io.format("not ~p = ~p~n", [A, not A]) io.format("~p xor ~p = ~p~n", [A, B, A xor B]) io.format("~n")
}
@public run = fn () {
compare_bool(true, true) compare_bool(true, false) compare_bool(false, true) compare_bool(false, false)
} </lang>
Elena
ELENA 4.x: <lang elena>import extensions;
public program() {
bool a := true; bool b := false; console.printLine("a and b is ", a && b); console.printLine("a or b is ", a || b); console.printLine("Not a is ", a.Inverted); console.printLine("a xor b is ", a ^^ b)
}</lang>
- Output:
a and b is false a or b is true Not a is false a xor b is true
Elixir
Elixir also provides three boolean operators: or
, and
and not
. These operators are strict in the sense that they expect a boolean (true
or false
) as their first argument:
<lang elixir>iex(1)> true and false
false
iex(2)> false or true
true
iex(3)> not false
true</lang>
or
and and
are short-circuit operators. They only execute the right side if the left side is not enough to determine the result:
Besides these boolean operators, Elixir also provides ||
, &&
and !
which accept arguments of any type. For these operators, all values except false
and nil
will evaluate to true:
<lang elixir>(28)> nil || 23
23
iex(29)> [] || false
[]
iex(30)> nil && true
nil
iex(31)> 0 && 15
15
iex(32)> ! true
false
iex(33)> ! nil
true
iex(34)> ! 3.14
false</lang>
As a rule of thumb, use and
, or
and not
when you are expecting booleans. If any of the arguments are non-boolean, use &&
, ||
and !
.
Elm
<lang Elm> --Open cmd and elm-repl and directly functions can be created
--Creating Functions t=True f=False opand a b= a && b opor a b= a || b opnot a= not a
--Using the created Functions opand t f opor t f opnot f
--Output will be False, True and True of type Boolean! --end </lang>
Erlang
<lang Erlang>1> true and false. false 2> false or true. true 3> true xor false. true 4> not false. true 5> not (true and true). false</lang>
Euphoria
<lang euphoria>procedure print_logic(integer a, integer b)
printf(1,"a and b is %d\n", a and b) printf(1,"a or b is %d\n", a or b) printf(1,"a xor b is %d\n", a xor b) printf(1,"not a is %d\n", not a)
end procedure</lang>
Excel
If the values are typed in cells A1 and B1, type in the following in cell C1
<lang excel> =CONCATENATE($A1, " AND ", $B1, " is ", AND($A1,$B1)) </lang>
In D1
<lang excel> =CONCATENATE($A1, " OR ", $B1, " is ", OR($A1,$B1)) </lang>
In E1
<lang excel> =CONCATENATE(" NOT ", $A1, " is ", NOT($A1)) </lang>
F#
<lang fsharp>let printLogic a b =
printfn "a and b is %b" (a && b) printfn "a or b is %b" (a || b) printfn "Not a is %b" (not a) // The not-equals operator has the same effect as XOR on booleans. printfn "a exclusive-or b is %b" (a <> b)</lang>
Factor
<lang factor>: logical-operators ( a b -- )
{ [ "xor is: " write xor . ] [ "and is: " write and . ] [ "or is: " write or . ] [ "not is: " write drop not . ] } 2cleave ;</lang>
FALSE
FALSE uses zero/non-zero for testing False and True. Comparison operators return -1 for True and 0 for False, which work with bitwise operators for logical operations. <lang false>1 3=~["unequal, "]? 1 1= 1_=["true is -1, "]? 0~["false is 0, "]? 'm$'a>'z@>&["a < m < z"]?</lang>
Fantom
<lang fantom> class Main {
static Void doOps (Bool arg1, Bool arg2) { echo ("$arg1 and $arg2 = ${arg1.and(arg2)}") echo ("$arg1 or $arg2 = ${arg1.or(arg2)}") echo ("not $arg1 = ${arg1.not}") echo ("$arg1 xor $arg2 = ${arg1.xor(arg2)}") }
public static Void main () { [true,false].each |Bool arg1| { [true,false].each |Bool arg2| { doOps (arg1, arg2) } } }
} </lang>
Forth
Forth can use bitwise operators if the boolean values are well formed: TRUE (-1) and FALSE (0). 0<> converts an ill-formed flag (zero/non-zero) to a well-formed flag (false/true). <lang forth>: .bool ( ? -- ) if ." true" else ." false" then ;
- logic ( a b -- ) 0<> swap 0<> swap
cr ." a = " over .bool ." b = " dup .bool cr ." a and b = " 2dup and .bool cr ." a or b = " over or .bool cr ." not a = " 0= .bool ;</lang>
Fortran
In ANSI FORTRAN 66 or later, use LOGICAL data type: <lang fortran> SUBROUTINE PRNLOG(A, B)
LOGICAL A, B PRINT *, 'a and b is ', A .AND. B PRINT *, 'a or b is ', A .OR. B PRINT *, 'not a is ', .NOT. A
C You did not ask, but the following logical operators are also standard C since ANSI FORTRAN 66 C =======================================================================
C This yields the same results as .EQ., but has lower operator precedence C and only works with LOGICAL operands:
PRINT *, 'a equivalent to b is ', A .EQV. B
C This yields the same results as .NE., but has lower operator precedence C and only works with LOGICAL operands (this operation is also commonly C called "exclusive or"):
PRINT *, 'a not equivalent to b is ', A .NEQV. B END</lang>
Free Pascal
See Delphi
Frink
<lang frink>logical[a,b] := {
println["$a and $b is " + (a and b)] println["$a or $b is " + (a or b)] println["$a xor $b is " + (a xor b)] println["$a nand $b is " + (a nand b)] println["$a nor $b is " + (a nor b)] println["not $a is " + (not a)]
}</lang>
FunL
<lang funl>def logical( a, b ) = println( """ a and b = ${a and b} a or b = ${a or b} not a = ${not a} a xor b = ${a xor b} """ )
for i <- [false, true], j <- [false, true] do logical( i, j )</lang>
- Output:
a and b = false a or b = false not a = true a xor b = false a and b = false a or b = true not a = true a xor b = true a and b = false a or b = true not a = false a xor b = true a and b = true a or b = true not a = false a xor b = false
FutureBasic
<lang futurebasic>window 1, @"Logical Operations", (0,0,480,270)
Boolean a, b
text ,,,,, 43
print @"In FB, the Boolean constants _true or YES = 1, _false or NO = 0" print fn StringByPaddingToLength( @"", 39, @"-", 0 )
print @"a\tb\tand\tor\txor\tnand\tnor" print fn StringByPaddingToLength( @"", 39, @"-", 0 )
a = NO : b = NO : print a, b, a and b, a or b, a xor b, a nand b, a nor b a = NO : b = YES : print a, b, a and b, a or b, a xor b, a nand b, a nor b a = YES : b = NO : print a, b, a and b, a or b, a xor b, a nand b, a nor b a = YES : b = YES : print a, b, a and b, a or b, a xor b, a nand b, a nor b
print "FB also has shorthand operator expressions" print fn StringByPaddingToLength( @"", 39, @"-", 0 ) print @"a\tb\t&&\t||\t^^\t^&\t^|" print fn StringByPaddingToLength( @"", 39, @"-", 0 )
a = NO : b = NO : print a, b, a && b, a || b, a ^^ b, a ^& b, a ^| b a = NO : b = YES : print a, b, a && b, a || b, a ^^ b, a ^& b, a ^| b a = YES : b = NO : print a, b, a && b, a || b, a ^^ b, a ^& b, a ^| b a = YES : b = YES : print a, b, a && b, a || b, a ^^ b, a ^& b, a ^| b
HandleEvents </lang>
In FB, the Boolean constants _true or YES = 1, _false or NO = 0 --------------------------------------- a b and or xor nand nor --------------------------------------- 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 0 1 0 1 1 0 -2 1 0 0 1 1 1 -1 1 1 1 1 0 0 -1 FB also has shorthand operator expressions --------------------------------------- a b && || ^^ ^& ^| --------------------------------------- 0 0 0 0 0 0 -1 0 1 0 1 1 0 -2 1 0 0 1 1 1 -1 1 1 1 1 0 0 -1
GAP
<lang gap>Logical := function(a, b)
return [ a or b, a and b, not a ];
end;
Logical(true, true);
- [ true, true, false ]
Logical(true, false);
- [ true, false, false ]
Logical(false, true);
- [ true, false, true ]
Logical(false, false);
- [ false, false, true ]</lang>
gecho
<lang gecho>3 4 and</lang> 3&&4 <lang gecho>1 2 or</lang> 1||2
Genie
<lang genie>[indent=4] /*
Logical operations in Genie valac logicals.gs ./logicals true false
- /
def logicals(a:bool, b:bool)
print @"$a and $b is $(a and b)" print @"$a or $b is $(a or b)" print @"not $a is $(not a)"
init
a:bool = bool.parse(args[1]) b:bool = bool.parse(args[2]) logicals(a, b)</lang>
- Output:
prompt$ valac logicals.gs prompt$ ./logicals true false true and false is false true or false is true not true is false
Go
<lang go>func printLogic(a, b bool) {
fmt.Println("a and b is", a && b) fmt.Println("a or b is", a || b) fmt.Println("not a is", !a)
}</lang> Other operators that work on type bool are == and !=. == corresponds to the logical operation of equivalence. != corresponds to exclusive or.
Bitwise operators come into play when you have to work with byte- or bit-level data.
- <lang go>package main
// stackoverflow.com/questions/28432398/difference-between-some-operators-golang import "fmt"
func main() { // Use bitwise OR | to get the bits that are in 1 OR 2 // 1 = 00000001 // 2 = 00000010 // 1 | 2 = 00000011 = 3 fmt.Println(1 | 2)
// Use bitwise OR | to get the bits that are in 1 OR 5 // 1 = 00000001 // 5 = 00000101 // 1 | 5 = 00000101 = 5 fmt.Println(1 | 5)
// Use bitwise XOR ^ to get the bits that are in 3 OR 6 BUT NOT BOTH // 3 = 00000011 // 6 = 00000110 // 3 ^ 6 = 00000101 = 5 fmt.Println(3 ^ 6)
// Use bitwise AND & to get the bits that are in 3 AND 6 // 3 = 00000011 // 6 = 00000110 // 3 & 6 = 00000010 = 2 fmt.Println(3 & 6)
// Use bit clear AND NOT &^ to get the bits that are in 3 AND NOT 6 (order matters) // 3 = 00000011 // 6 = 00000110 // 3 &^ 6 = 00000001 = 1 fmt.Println(3 &^ 6) }</lang>
Groovy
<lang groovy>def logical = { a, b ->
println """
a AND b = ${a} && ${b} = ${a & b} a OR b = ${a} || ${b} = ${a | b} NOT a = ! ${a} = ${! a} a XOR b = ${a} != ${b} = ${a != b} a EQV b = ${a} == ${b} = ${a == b} """ }</lang>
Program: <lang groovy>[true, false].each { a -> [true, false].each { b-> logical(a, b) } }</lang>
- Output:
a AND b = true && true = true a OR b = true || true = true NOT a = ! true = false a XOR b = true != true = false a EQV b = true == true = true a AND b = true && false = false a OR b = true || false = true NOT a = ! true = false a XOR b = true != false = true a EQV b = true == false = false a AND b = false && true = false a OR b = false || true = true NOT a = ! false = true a XOR b = false != true = true a EQV b = false == true = false a AND b = false && false = false a OR b = false || false = false NOT a = ! false = true a XOR b = false != false = false a EQV b = false == false = true
Harbour
<lang visualfoxpro>PROCEDURE Foo( a, b )
// a and b was defined as .F. (false) or .T. (true) ? a .AND. b ? a .OR. b ? ! a, ! b RETURN</lang>
Haskell
Instead of a function and printing, which is unidiomatic for Haskell, here are the operations in the same style as in Bitwise operations:
<lang haskell>a = False b = True
a_and_b = a && b a_or_b = a || b not_a = not a a_xor_b = a /= b a_nxor_b = a == b a_implies_b = a <= b -- sic! </lang>
(&&) and (||) are lazy on the second argument and therefore this operations are not symmetric: <lang haskell>*Main > False && undefined False Prelude> undefined && False
- Exception: Prelude.undefined
Prelude> True || undefined True Prelude> undefined || True
- Exception: Prelude.undefined</lang>
(<=), (<), (>=) and (>) on the other hand are strict: <lang haskell>Prelude> False <= undefined
- Exception: Prelude.undefined
Prelude> undefined <= True
- Exception: Prelude.undefined
Prelude> True < undefined
- Exception: Prelude.undefined
Prelude> undefined < False
- Exception: Prelude.undefined</lang>
hexiscript
<lang hexiscript>fun logic a b
println "a and b = " + (a && b) println "a or b = " + (a || b) println " not a = " + (!a)
endfun</lang>
HicEst
No logical variables. Nonzero is true, zero is false in logical expressions: <lang hicest> x = value1 /= 0
y = value2 /= 0 NOTx = x == 0 xANDy = x * y xORy = x + y /= 0 EOR = x /= y </lang>
HolyC
<lang holyc>U0 PrintLogic(Bool a, Bool b) {
Print("a and b is %d\n", a && b); Print("a or b is %d\n", a || b); Print("not a is %d\n", !a);
}
PrintLogic(TRUE, FALSE);</lang>
Hy
<lang clojure>(defn logic [a b]
(print "a and b:" (and a b)) (print "a or b:" (or a b)) (print "not a:" (not a)))</lang>
Icon and Unicon
Icon/Unicon do not have a native logical or Boolean type; nor do they use Boolean values for flow control. Instead for flow control they use the concept of success (a result is returned) or failure (a signal). For more on this see see Short Circuit Evaluation. Because there is almost no need for Boolean values the concept is somewhat alien.
One likely situation where Boolean values could be encountered is working with an external array of bits/flags. This example attempts to show a solution that would work in such a scenario. Some characteristics would include:
- the ability to work with an entire array of bits
- the ability to test an individual bit for true/false
- need to be careful with automatic type conversions
Of course other characteristics and functionality might be desirable, examples include:
- shifting (based on ishift)
- rotation
- conversion to a (large) integer
- setting a specific bit in the array
Those are left as an exercise for the reader.
There are a couple of choices for implementation. Briefly:
- use of &null and a non-null - this creates problems for negation as not &null can be any or all values
- use of large integers as bit arrays - only signed integers are supported and this complicates preserving array length
- use of strings - a bit wasteful of space
This implementation uses strings as packed arrays of bits. This facilitates easy reading and writing from external sources. While string length is variable it is controlled and doesn't change under negation. The built-in integer bit operations (ior, ixor, iand, ishift) can be utilized under the covers. <lang Icon>invocable all
procedure main() #: sample demonstrating boolean function use
limit := 4 char2 := char(2)||char(0) every (i := char(1 to limit)|char2) do {
write(iop := "bnot","( ",image(i)," ) = ",image(iop(i))) every k := 3 | 10 do { write("bistrue(",image(i),",",k,") - ", if bistrue(i,k) then "returns" else "fails") write("bisfalse(",image(i),",",k,") - ", if bisfalse(i,k) then "returns" else "fails") } every (j := char(1 to limit)) & (iop := "bor"|"band"|"bxor") do write(iop,"( ",image(i),", ",image(j)," ) = ",image(iop(i,j))) }
end
procedure bisfalse(b,p) #: test if bit p (numbered right to left from 1) is false; return b or fails
return boolean_testbit(0,b,p)
end
procedure bistrue(b,p) #: test if bit p is true; return b or fails return boolean_testbit(1,b,p) end
procedure bnot(b) #: logical complement of b (not is a reserved word) static cs,sc initial sc := reverse(cs := string(&cset)) if type(b) ~== "string" then runerr(103,b) return map(b,cs,sc) # en-mass inversion through remapping ordered cset end
procedure bor(b1,b2) #: logical or return boolean_op(ior,b1,b2) end
procedure band(b1,b2) #: logical or return boolean_op(iand,b1,b2) end
procedure bxor(b1,b2) #: logical or return boolean_op(ixor,b1,b2) end
procedure boolean_testbit(v,b,p) #: (internal) test if bit p is true/false; return b or fail if not 0 <= integer(p) = p then runerr(101,p) if type(b) ~== "string" then runerr(103,b) if v = ishift(ord(b[-p/8-1]), -(p%8)+1) then return b end
procedure boolean_op(iop,b1,b2) #: boolean helper local b3,i static z initial z := char(0) if type(b1) ~== "string" then runerr(103,b1) if type(b2) ~== "string" then runerr(103,b2) b3 := "" every i := -1 to -max(*b1,*b2) by -1 do
b3 := char(iop(ord(b1[i]|z),ord(b2[i]|z))) || b3
return b3 end</lang>
- Partial Sample Output
- :
... bnot( "\x03" ) = "\xfc" ... bor( "\x03", "\x01" ) = "\x03" band( "\x03", "\x01" ) = "\x01" bxor( "\x03", "\x01" ) = "\x02" ... bnot( "\x02\x00" ) = "\xfd\xff" bistrue("\x02\x00",3) - fails bisfalse("\x02\x00",3) - returns bistrue("\x02\x00",10) - returns bisfalse("\x02\x00",10) - fails bor( "\x02\x00", "\x01" ) = "\x02\x01" band( "\x02\x00", "\x01" ) = "\x00\x00" bxor( "\x02\x00", "\x01" ) = "\x02\x01" ...
Io
<lang io>printLogic := method(a,b,
writeln("a and b is ", a and b) writeln("a or b is ", a or b) writeln("not a is ", a not)
)</lang>
J
J uses 0 for logical false and 1 for logical true.
<lang j> aon=: *.`+.`(-.@[)`:0</lang>
Given boolean arguments, *.
is logical and, +.
is logical or, and -.
is logical not.
Additional primary logical operators include *:
(not-and), +:
(not-or), ~:
(exclusive-or) and <:
(logical implication).
<lang j>
a=: 0 0 1 1 NB. Work on vectors to show all possible b=: 0 1 0 1 NB. 2-bit combos at once. a aon b
0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0</lang>
An alternate approach, based on a probabilistic interpretation, uses *
for logical and, -.
for logical negation and derives the others: (*&.-.)
for logical or, (-.@*)
for not-and, (-.@*&.-.)
for not-or, (* *&.-. -.@*&.-.)
for exclusive or, and (*&.-. -.)~
for logical implication. You get the same results for simple truth values this way, but you also get consistent treatment for values between 0 and 1.
That said, J also supports truth valued operations on the binary representations of integers. (This is the concept of "packed binary", roughly speaking). For example 2b10001 b.
is and, 2b10111 b.
is or, 2b11110 b.
is nand, etc. (the last four bits of the control argument to b.
represent the desired binary truth table, while the prefix of that control argument in these examples specifies "packed binary"). Thus:
<lang J> (2b10001 b. table/~i.4);(2b10110 b. table/~i.4);<2b10000 b. table/~i.4 ┌───────────────┬───────────────┬───────────────┐ │┌─────┬───────┐│┌─────┬───────┐│┌─────┬───────┐│ ││17 b.│0 1 2 3│││22 b.│0 1 2 3│││16 b.│0 1 2 3││ │├─────┼───────┤│├─────┼───────┤│├─────┼───────┤│ ││0 │0 0 0 0│││0 │0 1 2 3│││0 │0 0 0 0││ ││1 │0 1 0 1│││1 │1 0 3 2│││1 │0 0 0 0││ ││2 │0 0 2 2│││2 │2 3 0 1│││2 │0 0 0 0││ ││3 │0 1 2 3│││3 │3 2 1 0│││3 │0 0 0 0││ │└─────┴───────┘│└─────┴───────┘│└─────┴───────┘│ └───────────────┴───────────────┴───────────────┘</lang>
Java
<lang java>public static void logic(boolean a, boolean b){
System.out.println("a AND b: " + (a && b)); System.out.println("a OR b: " + (a || b)); System.out.println("NOT a: " + (!a));
}</lang>
Additionally, ^ is used for XOR and == is used for "equal to" (a.k.a. bidirectional implication).
JavaScript
<lang javascript>function logic(a,b) {
print("a AND b: " + (a && b)); print("a OR b: " + (a || b)); print("NOT a: " + (!a));
}</lang>
jq
In jq, and and or have short-circuit semantics, and can be used with non-boolean arguments.
In addition to the basic logical operators, jq has any and all filters. Versions of jq since 1.4 also have extended versions of these for working efficiently with streams. <lang jq>def logic(a; b):
"\(a) and \(b) => \(a and b)", "\(a) or \(b) => \(a or b)", "\(a) | not => \(a | not)", "if \(a) then true else false end => \(if a then true else false end)" ;</lang>
Example: <lang jq> (false, null, []) as $a | (false, null, {}) as $b | logic( $a; $b )</lang>
<lang sh>$ jq -n -r -f logical_operations.jq false and false => false false or false => false false | not => true if false then true else false end => false false and null => false false or null => false false | not => true if false then true else false end => false false and {} => false false or {} => true false | not => true if false then true else false end => false null and false => false null or false => false null | not => true if null then true else false end => false null and null => false null or null => false null | not => true if null then true else false end => false null and {} => false null or {} => true null | not => true if null then true else false end => false [] and false => false [] or false => true [] | not => false if [] then true else false end => true [] and null => false [] or null => true [] | not => false if [] then true else false end => true [] and {} => true [] or {} => true [] | not => false
if [] then true else false end => true</lang>Julia
<lang Julia>using Printf
function exerciselogic(a::Bool, b::Bool)
st = @sprintf " %5s" a st *= @sprintf " %5s" b st *= @sprintf " %5s" ~a st *= @sprintf " %5s" a | b st *= @sprintf " %5s" a & b st *= @sprintf " %5s" a $ b
end
println("Julia's logical operations on Bool:") println(" a b not or and xor") for a in [true, false], b in [true, false]
println(exerciselogic(a, b))
end </lang>
- Output:
Julia's logical operations on Bool: a b not or and xor true true false true true false true false false true false true false true true true false true false false true false false false
Notes
This solution shows the bitwise operators in action. There are also short-circuiting or and and (||
, &&
). In addition, there are updating versions of the three binary logical operators, |=
, &=
and $=
.
Kotlin
Similar style to FreeBASIC entry: <lang scala>// version 1.0.6
fun logicalDemo(b1: Boolean, b2: Boolean) {
println("b1 = $b1") println("b2 = $b2") println("b1 and b2 = ${b1 and b2}") println("b1 or b2 = ${b1 or b2}") println("b1 xor b2 = ${b1 xor b2}") println("not b1 = ${!b1}") println("b1 && b2 = ${b1 && b2}") println("b1 || b2 = ${b1 || b2}") println()
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
logicalDemo(true, true) logicalDemo(true, false) logicalDemo(false, false) logicalDemo(false, true)
}</lang>
- Output:
b1 = true b2 = true b1 and b2 = true b1 or b2 = true b1 xor b2 = false not b1 = false b1 && b2 = true b1 || b2 = true b1 = true b2 = false b1 and b2 = false b1 or b2 = true b1 xor b2 = true not b1 = false b1 && b2 = false b1 || b2 = true b1 = false b2 = false b1 and b2 = false b1 or b2 = false b1 xor b2 = false not b1 = true b1 && b2 = false b1 || b2 = false b1 = false b2 = true b1 and b2 = false b1 or b2 = true b1 xor b2 = true not b1 = true b1 && b2 = false b1 || b2 = true
Lambdatalk
<lang Scheme> {and true true true false true} -> false {or true true true false true} -> true {not true} -> false </lang>
langur
The logical operators in langur compare the "truthiness" of the left and right operands and do not require Booleans. A null is a non-truthy result.
The operators and, or, nand, nor, and?, or?, nand?, nor?, xor?, and nxor? are short-circuiting.
Operators that end with ? are null propagating or "database" operators, and will return null if either operand is null. They short-circuit differently than normal operators (only if the left operand is null).
<lang langur>val .test = f(.a, .b) join("\n", [
$"not \.a;: \{not .a}", $"\.a; and \.b;: \.a and .b;", $"\.a; or \.b;: \.a or .b;", $"\.a; nand \.b;: \.a nand .b;", $"\.a; nor \.b;: \.a nor .b;", $"\.a; xor \.b;: \.a xor .b;", $"\.a; nxor \.b;: \.a nxor .b;", "",
$"not? \.a;: \{not? .a}", $"\.a; and? \.b;: \.a and? .b;", $"\.a; or? \.b;: \.a or? .b;", $"\.a; nand? \.b;: \.a nand? .b;", $"\.a; nor? \.b;: \.a nor? .b;", $"\.a; xor? \.b;: \.a xor? .b;", $"\.a; nxor? \.b;: \.a nxor? .b;", "\n",
])
val .tests = [
[true, false], [false, true], [true, true], [false, false],
# including null... [true, null], [null, true], [false, null], [null, false], [null, null],
]
for .t in .tests {
write .test(.t[1], .t[2])
}</lang>
- Output:
not true: false true and false: false true or false: true true nand false: true true nor false: false true xor false: true true nxor false: false not? true: false true and? false: false true or? false: true true nand? false: true true nor? false: false true xor? false: true true nxor? false: false not false: true false and true: false false or true: true false nand true: true false nor true: false false xor true: true false nxor true: false not? false: true false and? true: false false or? true: true false nand? true: true false nor? true: false false xor? true: true false nxor? true: false not true: false true and true: true true or true: true true nand true: false true nor true: false true xor true: false true nxor true: true not? true: false true and? true: true true or? true: true true nand? true: false true nor? true: false true xor? true: false true nxor? true: true not false: true false and false: false false or false: false false nand false: true false nor false: true false xor false: false false nxor false: true not? false: true false and? false: false false or? false: false false nand? false: true false nor? false: true false xor? false: false false nxor? false: true not true: false true and null: false true or null: true true nand null: true true nor null: false true xor null: true true nxor null: false not? true: false true and? null: null true or? null: null true nand? null: null true nor? null: null true xor? null: null true nxor? null: null not null: true null and true: false null or true: true null nand true: true null nor true: false null xor true: true null nxor true: false not? null: null null and? true: null null or? true: null null nand? true: null null nor? true: null null xor? true: null null nxor? true: null not false: true false and null: false false or null: false false nand null: true false nor null: true false xor null: false false nxor null: true not? false: true false and? null: null false or? null: null false nand? null: null false nor? null: null false xor? null: null false nxor? null: null not null: true null and false: false null or false: false null nand false: true null nor false: true null xor false: false null nxor false: true not? null: null null and? false: null null or? false: null null nand? false: null null nor? false: null null xor? false: null null nxor? false: null not null: true null and null: false null or null: false null nand null: true null nor null: true null xor null: false null nxor null: true not? null: null null and? null: null null or? null: null null nand? null: null null nor? null: null null xor? null: null null nxor? null: null
Lasso
<lang Lasso>// br is just for formatting output here define br => '\r'
// define vars local(a = true, b = false)
// boolean comparators. // note, not including comparison operators which would return boolean results 'a AND b: ' + (#a && #b) br 'a OR b: ' + (#a || #b) br 'NOT a: ' + !#a br 'NOT a (using not): ' + not #a</lang>
Liberty BASIC
There is no truly Boolean type. 0 = false, nonzero = true. A true value is ANY value not zero, but is usually considered to be either "1" or "-1". <lang lb> False =0 True =not( False)
print " True ="; True, "False ="; False, "NB True here shown as -1" print
print " a b AND OR XOR" a =0: b =0: print " "; a; " "; b; " "; a and b; " "; a or b; " "; a xor b a =0: b =1: print " "; a; " "; b; " "; a and b; " "; a or b; " "; a xor b a =1: b =0: print " "; a; " "; b; " "; a and b; " "; a or b; " "; a xor b a =1: b =1: print " "; a; " "; b; " "; a and b; " "; a or b; " "; a xor b
end </lang>
True =-1 False =0 NB True here shown as -1 . a b AND OR XOR 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
LIL
<lang tcl># Logical operations, in LIL set first [expr 1 == 1] set second [expr 1 == 0]
func and-or-not {a b} {
print a $a b $b print "a AND b" [expr $a && $b] print "a OR b " [expr $a || $b] print "NOT a " [expr !$a]
}
and-or-not $first $second</lang>
- Output:
prompt$ lil logicalOperations.lil a 1 b 0 a AND b 0 a OR b 1 NOT a 0
LiveCode
<lang LiveCode>function boolOps p1, p2
local boolOpsResult put p1 && "AND" && p2 && "=" && merge("p1 and p2") & cr after boolOpsResult put p1 && "OR" && p2 && "=" && merge("p1 or p2") & cr after boolOpsResult put "NOT" && p1 && "=" && merge("not p1") & cr after boolOpsResult return boolOpsResult
end boolOps</lang> Example <lang LiveCode>repeat for each item bop in "true,false"
put boolops(bop, bop) & cr after bopResult put boolops(bop, not bop) & cr after bopResult
end repeat put bopResult
-- results true AND true = true true OR true = true NOT true = false
true AND false = false true OR false = true NOT true = false
false AND false = false false OR false = false NOT false = true
false AND true = false false OR true = true NOT false = true</lang>
LLVM
<lang llvm>; This is not strictly LLVM, as it uses the C library function "printf".
- LLVM does not provide a way to print values, so the alternative would be
- to just load the string into memory, and that would be boring.
- Additional comments have been inserted, as well as changes made from the output produced by clang such as putting more meaningful labels for the jumps
- --- The declarations for the external C functions
declare i32 @printf(i8*, ...)
$"FORMAT_AND" = comdat any
$"FORMAT_OR" = comdat any
$"FORMAT_NOT" = comdat any
@"FORMAT_AND" = linkonce_odr unnamed_addr constant [15 x i8] c"a and b is %d\0A\00", comdat, align 1 @"FORMAT_OR" = linkonce_odr unnamed_addr constant [14 x i8] c"a or b is %d\0A\00", comdat, align 1 @"FORMAT_NOT" = linkonce_odr unnamed_addr constant [13 x i8] c"not a is %d\0A\00", comdat, align 1
- Function Attrs
- noinline nounwind optnone uwtable
define void @print_logic(i32, i32) #0 {
%3 = alloca i32, align 4 ;-- allocate b %4 = alloca i32, align 4 ;-- allocate a store i32 %1, i32* %3, align 4 ;-- copy parameter b store i32 %0, i32* %4, align 4 ;-- copy parameter a %5 = load i32, i32* %4, align 4 ;-- load a %6 = icmp ne i32 %5, 0 ;-- is a true? br i1 %6, label %and_true, label %and_false
and_true:
%7 = load i32, i32* %3, align 4 %8 = icmp ne i32 %7, 0 br label %and_false
and_false:
%9 = phi i1 [ false, %2 ], [ %8, %and_true ] %10 = zext i1 %9 to i32 %11 = call i32 (i8*, ...) @printf(i8* getelementptr inbounds ([15 x i8], [15 x i8]* @"FORMAT_AND", i32 0, i32 0), i32 %10) %12 = load i32, i32* %4, align 4 ;-- load a %13 = icmp ne i32 %12, 0 ;-- is a true? br i1 %13, label %or_true, label %or_false
or_false:
%14 = load i32, i32* %3, align 4 ;-- load b %15 = icmp ne i32 %14, 0 ;-- is b true? br label %or_true
or_true:
%16 = phi i1 [ true, %and_false ], [ %15, %or_false ] %17 = zext i1 %16 to i32 %18 = call i32 (i8*, ...) @printf(i8* getelementptr inbounds ([14 x i8], [14 x i8]* @"FORMAT_OR", i32 0, i32 0), i32 %17)
%19 = load i32, i32* %4, align 4 ;-- load a %20 = icmp ne i32 %19, 0 %21 = xor i1 %20, true %22 = zext i1 %21 to i32 %23 = call i32 (i8*, ...) @printf(i8* getelementptr inbounds ([13 x i8], [13 x i8]* @"FORMAT_NOT", i32 0, i32 0), i32 %22) ret void
}
- Function Attrs
- noinline nounwind optnone uwtable
define i32 @main() #0 {
%1 = alloca i32, align 4 ;-- allocate i %2 = alloca i32, align 4 ;-- allocate j store i32 0, i32* %1, align 4 ;-- store 0 in i br label %loop_i
loop_i:
%3 = load i32, i32* %1, align 4 ;-- load i %4 = icmp slt i32 %3, 2 ;-- i < 2 br i1 %4, label %loop_j_init, label %exit
loop_j_init:
store i32 0, i32* %2, align 4 ;-- store 0 in j br label %loop_j
loop_j:
%5 = load i32, i32* %2, align 4 ;-- load j %6 = icmp slt i32 %5, 2 ;-- j < 2 br i1 %6, label %loop_body, label %loop_i_inc
loop_body:
%7 = load i32, i32* %2, align 4 ;-- load j %8 = load i32, i32* %1, align 4 ;-- load i call void @print_logic(i32 %8, i32 %7) %9 = load i32, i32* %2, align 4 ;-- load j %10 = add nsw i32 %9, 1 ;-- increment j store i32 %10, i32* %2, align 4 ;-- store j br label %loop_j
loop_i_inc:
%11 = load i32, i32* %1, align 4 ;-- load i %12 = add nsw i32 %11, 1 ;-- increment i store i32 %12, i32* %1, align 4 ;-- store i br label %loop_i
exit:
ret i32 0
}
attributes #0 = { noinline nounwind optnone uwtable "correctly-rounded-divide-sqrt-fp-math"="false" "disable-tail-calls"="false" "less-precise-fpmad"="false" "no-frame-pointer-elim"="false" "no-infs-fp-math"="false" "no-jump-tables"="false" "no-nans-fp-math"="false" "no-signed-zeros-fp-math"="false" "no-trapping-math"="false" "stack-protector-buffer-size"="8" "target-cpu"="x86-64" "target-features"="+fxsr,+mmx,+sse,+sse2,+x87" "unsafe-fp-math"="false" "use-soft-float"="false" }</lang>
- Output:
a and b is 0 a or b is 0 not a is 1 a and b is 0 a or b is 1 not a is 1 a and b is 0 a or b is 1 not a is 0 a and b is 1 a or b is 1 not a is 0
Logo
The boolean literals are used as words ("true and "false) when used in a program. <lang logo>to logic :a :b
(print [a AND b =] and :a :b) (print [a OR b =] or :a :b) (print [NOT a =] not :a)
end</lang>
AND and OR may have arity greater than two if used in parentheses (and :a :b :c).
Lua
<lang lua> function logic(a,b)
return a and b, a or b, not a
end </lang>
M2000 Interpreter
<lang M2000 Interpreter> Module CheckIt {
Def Boolean A, B Document Rep$ A=True B=False k=(A, B) And=Lambda (a as Boolean, b as Boolean)-> a and b Or=Lambda (a as Boolean, b as Boolean)-> a or b Xor=Lambda (a as Boolean, b as Boolean)-> a xor b Not=Lambda (a)->Not a func=((And, "And"), (Or, "Or"), (Xor, "Xor")) F1=Each(func) While F1 { M1=Each(k) M2=Each(k) While M1 { While M2 { A=Array(Array(F1), 0) Rep$=Format$("{0} {1} {2} = {3}",Array(M1), Array$(Array(F1), 1),Array(M2), A(Array(M1), Array(M2)))+{ } } } } M1=Each(k) While M1 { Rep$=Format$("Not {0} = {1}",Array(M1), Not Array(M1))+{ } } Report Rep$ Clipboard Rep$
} CheckIt </lang>
- Output:
True And True = True True And False = False False And True = False False And False = False True Or True = True True Or False = True False Or True = True False Or False = False True Xor True = False True Xor False = True False Xor True = True False Xor False = False Not True = False Not False = True
M4
<lang m4>define(`logical',
`and($1,$2)=eval($1&&$2) or($1,$2)=eval($1||$2) not($1)=eval(!$1)')
logical(1,0)</lang>
- Output:
and(1,0)=0 or(1,0)=1 not(1)=0
Maple
Infix and prefix operators are provided for each of and
, or
, not
as well as xor
and implies
.
<lang Maple>
f:=proc(a,b) a and b, a or b, not a; end proc:
f(true,true); f(true,false); f(false,true); f(false,false); </lang>
- Output:
true, true, false false, true, false false, true, true false, false, true
Mathematica /Wolfram Language
<lang Mathematica>And[a,b,...] Or[a,b,...] Not[a]</lang> And can also be given using the infix operator &&, Or can also be used using the infix operator ||. Not[a] can also be written as !a. Furthermore Mathematica supports: <lang Mathematica>Xor[a, b,...] Nand[a, b,...] Nor[a, b,...] Xnor[a, b,...]</lang> Note that the functions are not restricted to 2 arguments; any number of arguments are allowed (except for the function Not). All these functions can also be used with infix operators, the characters for that are: \[Xor], \[Nand], \[Nor], and \[Xnor]. Or by typing [escape] [name boolean operator] [escape].
Maxima
<lang maxima>f(a, b) := [not a, a or b, a and b];
/* to use multiple arguments, use any of these */ a and b and c and d; a or b or c or d; "and"(a, b, c, d); "or"(a, b, c, d); apply("and", [a, b, c, d]); apply("or", [a, b, c, d]);</lang>
MAXScript
<lang maxscript>fn printLogic a b = (
format "a and b is %\n" (a and b) format "a or b is %\n" (a or b) format "not a is %\n" (not a)
)</lang>
Metafont
<lang metafont>def tf(expr a) = if a: "true" else: "false" fi enddef; def test(expr a, b) =
for o = "and", "or": message tf(a) & " " & o & " " & tf(b); show a scantokens(o) b; endfor message "not " & tf(a); show not a enddef;</lang>
<lang metafont>test(true, true); test(false, false); test(true, false); test(false, true); end</lang>
min
<lang min>(
:b :a "xor is: " print! a b xor puts! "and is: " print! a b and puts! "or is: " print! a b or puts! "not is: " print! a not puts!
) :logical-operators</lang>
Modula-2
<lang modula2>MODULE LogicalOps; FROM FormatString IMPORT FormatString; FROM Terminal IMPORT WriteString,WriteLn,ReadChar;
PROCEDURE Print(a,b : BOOLEAN); VAR buf : ARRAY[0..31] OF CHAR; BEGIN
FormatString("a and b is %b\n", buf, a AND b); WriteString(buf); FormatString("a or b is %b\n", buf, a OR b); WriteString(buf); FormatString("not a is %b\n", buf, NOT a); WriteString(buf); WriteLn
END Print;
BEGIN
Print(FALSE, FALSE); Print(FALSE, TRUE); Print(TRUE, TRUE); Print(TRUE, FALSE);
ReadChar
END LogicalOps.</lang>
Modula-3
<lang modula3>MODULE Logical EXPORTS Main;
FROM IO IMPORT Put; FROM Fmt IMPORT Bool;
PROCEDURE Test(a, b: BOOLEAN) =
BEGIN Put("a AND b is " & Bool(a AND b) & "\n"); Put("a OR b is " & Bool(a OR b) & "\n"); Put("NOT a is " & Bool(NOT a) & "\n"); END Test;
BEGIN
Test(TRUE, FALSE);
END Logical.</lang>
MUMPS
<lang MUMPS> LOGIC(A,B)
WRITE !,A," AND ",B," IS ",A&B WRITE !,A," OR ",B," IS ",A!B WRITE !,"NOT ",A," AND ",B," IS ",'(A)&B WRITE !,"NOT ",A," OR ",B," IS ",'(A)!B
</lang>
Nanoquery
<lang Nanoquery>def logic(a, b) println "a and b: " + (a && b) println "a or b: " + (a && b) println "not a: " + !a end</lang> While this is translated from Python, Nanoquery does not allow any object to be treated as a boolean value. As a result, this function must be called with explicit boolean values.
- Output:
% import "logic.nq" % logic($true, $true) a and b: true a or b: true not a: false % logic($true, $false) a and b: false a or b: true not a: false
Neko
<lang ActionScript>/**
Logical operations, in Neko
- /
/* For logical operations, values need to be explicitly treated as boolean */ /* Only null, false and 0 evaluate as false with $istrue() */
var logical = 1 if logical $print("literal 1 tests true\n") else $print("literal 1 tests false\n") if $istrue(logical) $print("$istrue(1) tests true\n")
/* supports && logical AND, || logical OR, $not(value) the opposite of $istrue() */
if $istrue(logical) && logical > 0 $print("true path for logical AND\n") if $istrue(logical) || logical > 1 $print("true path for logical OR\n") if $not(logical) $print("true path for $not(1)\n") else $print("false path for $not(1)\n")</lang>
- Output:
prompt$ nekoc logical-operations.neko prompt$ neko logical-operations.n literal 1 tests false $istrue(1) tests true true path for logical AND true path for logical OR false path for $not(1)
Nemerle
<lang Nemerle>using System; using System.Console;
module Logical {
WriteLogical(a : bool, b : bool) : void { WriteLine("{0} and {1} is {2}", a, b, a && b); WriteLine("{0} or {1} is {2}", a, b, a || b); WriteLine("not {0} is {1}", a, !a); } Main() : void {WriteLogical(true, false)}
}</lang> Or, if you prefer keywords to operators import the Nemerle.English namespace to use and, or, and not.
NetRexx
<lang NetRexx>/* NetRexx */ options replace format comments java crossref symbols binary
runSample(arg) return
-- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ method logicalOperation(xL = boolean, xR = boolean) public static
say showBool(xL) 'AND' showBool(xR) '=' showBool(xL & xR) -- AND say showBool(xL) 'OR ' showBool(xR) '=' showBool(xL | xR) -- OR say showBool(xL) 'XOR' showBool(xR) '=' showBool(xL && xR) -- XOR say ' ' 'NOT' showBool(xL) '=' showBool(\xL) -- NOT say return
-- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ method showBool(bb = boolean) public static
if bb then bt = 'true ' else bt = 'false' return bt
-- ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ method runSample(arg) private static
TRUE_ = (1 == 1) FALSE_ = \TRUE_ lpairs = [ - [TRUE_, TRUE_ ], - [TRUE_, FALSE_], - [FALSE_, TRUE_ ], - [FALSE_, FALSE_] - ] loop lx = 0 to lpairs.length - 1 lpair = lpairs[lx] --say showBool(lpair[0]) showBool(lpair[1]) logicalOperation(lpair[0], lpair[1]) end lx return
</lang>
- Output:
true AND true = true true OR true = true true XOR true = false NOT true = false true AND false = false true OR false = true true XOR false = true NOT true = false false AND true = false false OR true = true false XOR true = true NOT false = true false AND false = false false OR false = false false XOR false = false NOT false = true
NewLISP
<lang newlisp> (define (logic a b) (print "a and b is: " (and a b) "\n a or b is: " (or a b)) (print "\n not a is: " (not a)))
</lang>
Nim
<lang nim>proc logic(a, b: bool) =
echo "a and b: ", a and b echo "a or b: ", a or b echo "not a: ", not a echo "a xor b: ", a xor b</lang>
Objeck
<lang objeck> bundle Default {
class Logic { function : Main(args : String[]) ~ Nil { a := true; b := false; IO.Console->GetInstance()->Print("a and b is: ")->PrintLine(a & b); IO.Console->GetInstance()->Print("a or b is: ")->PrintLine(a | b); IO.Console->GetInstance()->Print("not a is: ")->PrintLine(a <> true); } }
} </lang>
OCaml
<lang ocaml>let print_logic a b =
Printf.printf "a and b is %B\n" (a && b); Printf.printf "a or b is %B\n" (a || b); Printf.printf "not a is %B\n" (not a)</lang>
Octave
<lang octave>function test(a, b)
s1 = num2str(a); s2 = num2str(b); disp(strcat(s1, " and ", s2, " = ", num2str(a&&b))); disp(strcat(s1, " or ", s2, " = ", num2str(a||b))); disp(strcat("not ", s1, " = ", num2str(!a)));
endfunction
% constant true is 1, false is 0 test(true, true); test(false, false); test(true, false); test(false, true);</lang>
Oforth
<lang Oforth>: logical(b1, b2)
System.Out "and = " << b1 b2 and << cr System.Out "or = " << b1 b2 or << cr System.Out "xor = " << b1 b2 xor << cr System.Out "not = " << b1 not << cr ;</lang>
OOC
Bools in ooc are just covers for C's bools and respond to the same operators. <lang ooc> logic: func (a: Bool, b: Bool) {
println() "A=#{a}, B=#{b}:" println() "AND: #{a && b}" println() "OR: #{a || b}" println() "NOT A: #{!a}" println()
}
main: func {
logic(true, false) logic(true, true) logic(false, false) logic(false, true)
} </lang>
OpenEdge/Progress
The logical data type can have three values: true, false or unknown (represented by question mark).
<lang progress>FUNCTION testLogical RETURNS CHAR (
i_l1 AS LOGICAL, i_l2 AS LOGICAL
):
RETURN SUBSTITUTE( '&1 and &2: &3', i_l1, i_l2, i_l1 AND i_l2 ) + '~n' + SUBSTITUTE( '&1 or &2: &3', i_l1, i_l2, i_l1 OR i_l2 ) + '~n' + SUBSTITUTE( 'not &1: &2', i_l1, NOT i_l1 ) .
END FUNCTION.</lang> <lang progress>MESSAGE
testLogical( FALSE, FALSE ) SKIP(1) testLogical( FALSE, TRUE ) SKIP(1) testLogical( TRUE, FALSE ) SKIP(1) testLogical( TRUE, TRUE ) SKIP(2)
testLogical( ?, ? ) SKIP(1) testLogical( ?, FALSE ) SKIP(1) testLogical( ?, TRUE ) SKIP(1)
VIEW-AS ALERT-BOX.</lang>
- Output:
--------------------------- Message (Press HELP to view stack trace) --------------------------- no and no: no no or no: no not no: yes no and yes: no no or yes: yes not no: yes yes and no: no yes or no: yes not yes: no yes and yes: yes yes or yes: yes not yes: no ? and ?: ? ? or ?: ? not ?: ? ? and no: no ? or no: ? not ?: ? ? and yes: ? ? or yes: yes not ?: ? --------------------------- OK Help ---------------------------
Oz
<lang oz>proc {PrintLogic A B}
%% using not short-circuiting standard library functions {Show {And A B}} {Show {Or A B}} {Show {Not A}}
%% using short-circuiting keywords {Show A andthen B} {Show A orelse B}
end</lang>
PARI/GP
Note that the forms bitand()
, bitor()
, bitneg()
, and bitxor()
also exist. These apply the operator to each bit and do not short-circuit, unlike the below.
<lang parigp>logic(a,b)={
print(a&b); \\ && is the same print(a|b); \\ || is the same print(!a);
};</lang>
Pascal
Nine logical operators are standard. Since Boolean is a built-in enumeration data type, all relational operators except the membership operator (in) are applicable. Moreover, Delphi and Free Pascal support the exclusive operator xor. <lang pascal>function logicalOperations(A, B: Boolean): Boolean; begin { logical conjunction } writeLn(A:5, ' and', B:6, ' yields', A and B:7); { logical disjunction } writeLn(A:5, ' or', B:6, ' yields', A or B:7); { logical negation } writeLn(' not', A:6, ' yields', not A:7); { logical equivalence } writeLn(A:5, ' =', B:6, ' yields', A = B:7); { negation of logical equivalence } writeLn(A:5, ' <>', B:6, ' yields', A <> B:7); { relational operators } writeLn(A:5, ' <', B:6, ' yields', A < B:7); writeLn(A:5, ' >', B:6, ' yields', A > B:7); writeLn(A:5, ' <=', B:6, ' yields', A <= B:7); writeLn(A:5, ' >=', B:6, ' yields', A >= B:7); { fulfill task requirement of writing a function: } logicalOperations := true end;</lang> Furthermore, Extended Pascal (ISO standard 10206) defines two additional logical operators. The operators and_then and or_else are intended for short-circuit evaluation. However, since all actual parameters need to be evaluated prior activation of the function, it makes little sense to use/show them in the above sample code.
Perl
<lang perl>sub show_bool {
return shift() ? 'true' : 'false', "\n";
}
sub test_logic {
my ($a, $b) = @_; print "a and b is ", show_bool $a && $b; print "a or b is ", show_bool $a || $b; print "not a is ", show_bool !$a; print "a xor b is ", show_bool($a xor $b);
}</lang>
There are also and
, or
, and not
operators. These are just like &&
, ||
, and !
(respectively) except for their precedences, which are much lower.
Phix
There is a builtin bool type, which is actually just an alias for integer, and a proper boolean type in builtins/ptypes.e
The operators always return 1(true) or 0(false), and treat operands of 0 as false and all other (atom) values as true.
Short-circuiting is always applied (to all "and"/"or" expressions)
Other relational operators and maths are also valid, if you wanna get clever.
function logicop(bool a, b) return {a, b, a and b, a or b, not a, a xor b, a==b, a!=b} end function printf(1," a b and or not xor == !=\n") for a=FALSE to TRUE do -- nb: TRUE to FALSE would need a "by -1". for b=FALSE to TRUE do printf(1,"%-5t %-5t %-5t %-5t %-5t %-5t %-5t %-5t\n",logicop(a,b)) end for end for
- Output:
a b and or not xor == != false false false false true false true false false true false true true true false true true false false true false true false true true true true true false false true false
Simpler version using plain integer flags:
function logiicop(integer a, b) return {a, b, a and b, a or b, not a, a xor b, a=b, a!=b} end function printf(1," a b and or not xor == !=\n") for a=0 to 1 do for b=0 to 1 do printf(1," %d %d %d %d %d %d %d %d\n",logiicop(a,b)) end for end for
- Output:
a b and or not xor == != 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0
PHP
<lang php>function print_logic($a, $b) {
echo "a and b is ", $a && $b ? 'True' : 'False', "\n"; echo "a or b is ", $a || $b ? 'True' : 'False', "\n"; echo "not a is ", ! $a ? 'True' : 'False', "\n";
}</lang>
PicoLisp
<lang PicoLisp>(de logic (A B)
(prin "A AND B is ") (println (and A B)) (prin "A OR B is ") (println (or A B)) (prin "A XOR B is ") (println (xor A B)) (prin "NOT A is ") (println (not A)) )</lang>
PL/I
<lang pli>logical_ops: procedure (t, u);
declare (t, u) bit (1);
put skip list (t & u); put skip list (t | u); /* logical or */ put skip list (^t); /* logical not */ put skip list (t ^ u); /* exclusive or */
end logical_ops;</lang>
Pop11
<lang pop11>define print_logic(a, b);
printf(a and b, 'a and b is %p\n'); printf(a or b, 'a or b is %p\n'); printf(not(a), 'not a is %p\n');
enddefine;</lang>
Example usage is: <lang pop11>print_logic(true, false);</lang>
PostScript
<lang postscript> /logical{ /a exch def /b exch def a b and = a b or = a not = }def </lang>
PowerShell
<lang powershell>function Test-Boolean ([bool] $a, [bool] $b) {
Write-Host "A and B: " ($a -and $b) Write-Host "A or B: " ($a -or $b) Write-Host "not A: " (-not $a) Write-Host "not A: " (!$a) Write-Host "A xor B: " ($a -xor $b)
}</lang>
Prolog
In Prolog, ',' is used for and, ';' for or and \+ for not.
?- true,true. true. ?- true,false. false. ?- true;false. true . ?- false;true. true . ?- false;false. false . ?- \+true. false. ?- \+false. true. ?- \+((true,false)). true. ?- \+((true;false)). false.
PureBasic
<lang PureBasic>Procedure LogicDebug(a,b)
Debug a & b ;And Debug a | b ;Or Debug ~a ;Not Debug a ! b ;XOr
EndProcedure
logicDebug(#True, #True) logicDebug(#True, #False) logicDebug(#False, #False)</lang>
Python
<lang python>def logic(a, b):
print('a and b:', a and b) print('a or b:', a or b) print('not a:', not a)</lang>
Note: Any normal object can be treated as a Boolean in Python. Numeric objects which evaluate to any non-zero value are "True" otherwise they are false. Non-empty strings, lists, tuples and other sequences are "True" otherwise they are false. The pre-defined None object is also treated as "False." In Python 2.3 pre-defined objects named True and False were added to the language; prior to that it was a common convention to include a line: False, True = 0, 1 to use these as names. Custom classes which implement __nonzero__ or __len__ or some other special methods can be implicitly evaluated as Booleans based on those results.
QB64
<lang QB64> Dim As _Unsigned _Bit First, Second First = 0: Second = 1 Print " Operator F S results "
Print " AND 1 0 "; First And Second Print " XOR 1 0 "; First Xor Second Print " OR 1 0 "; First Or Second Print " NOT 1 "; Not First Print " EQV 1 0 "; First Eqv Second Print " IMP 1 0 "; First Imp Second
</lang>
Quackery
Quackery also has the boolean words nand
and xor
.
<lang Quackery> [ iff [ say "true" ]
else [ say "false"] ] is echobool ( b --> )
[ 2dup and say "A and B is " echobool cr over or say "A or B is " echobool cr not say "not A is " echobool cr ] is task ( A B --> )</lang>
- Output:
As a dialogue in the Quackery shell.
/O> true true task ... A and B is true A or B is true not A is false Stack empty. /O> true false task ... A and B is false A or B is true not A is false Stack empty. /O> false true task ... A and B is false A or B is true not A is true Stack empty. /O> false false task ... A and B is false A or B is false not A is true Stack empty.
R
<lang R>logic <- function(a, b) {
print(a && b) print(a || b) print(! a)
}
logic(TRUE, TRUE) logic(TRUE, FALSE) logic(FALSE, FALSE)</lang>
Racket
<lang Racket>#lang racket
(define (logic a b)
(displayln (format "a and b equals ~a" (and a b))) (displayln (format "a or b equals ~a" (or a b))) (displayln (format "not a equals ~a" (not a))) (displayln (format "a nand b equals ~a" (nand a b))) (displayln (format "a nor b equals ~a" (nor a b))) (displayln (format "a implies b equals ~a" (implies a b))) (displayln (format "a xor b equals ~a" (xor a b))))</lang>
Raku
(formerly Perl 6)
Raku has an abundance of logical operators for various purposes. <lang perl6>sub logic($a,$b) {
say "$a && $b is ", $a && $b; # short-circuiting say "$a || $b is ", $a || $b; # short-circuiting say "$a ^^ $b is ", $a ^^ $b; say "!$a is ", !$a;
say "$a ?& $b is ", $a ?& $b; # non-short-circuiting say "$a ?| $b is ", $a ?| $b; # non-short-circuiting say "$a ?^ $b is ", $a ?^ $b; # non-short-circuiting
say "$a +& $b is ", $a +& $b; # numeric bitwise say "$a +| $b is ", $a +| $b; # numeric bitwise say "$a +^ $b is ", $a +^ $b; # numeric bitwise
say "$a ~& $b is ", $a ~& $b; # buffer bitwise say "$a ~| $b is ", $a ~| $b; # buffer bitwise say "$a ~^ $b is ", $a ~| $b; # buffer bitwise
say "$a & $b is ", $a & $b; # junctional/autothreading say "$a | $b is ", $a | $b; # junctional/autothreading say "$a ^ $b is ", $a ^ $b; # junctional/autothreading
say "$a and $b is ", ($a and $b); # loose short-circuiting say "$a or $b is ", ($a or $b); # loose short-circuiting say "$a xor $b is ", ($a xor $b); say "not $a is ", (not $a);
}
logic(3,10);</lang>
- Output:
3 && 10 is 10 3 || 10 is 3 3 ^^ 10 is Nil !3 is False 3 ?& 10 is True 3 ?| 10 is True 3 ?^ 10 is False 3 +& 10 is 2 3 +| 10 is 11 3 +^ 10 is 9 3 ~& 10 is 1 3 ~| 10 is 30 3 ~^ 10 is 30 3 & 10 is all(3, 10) 3 | 10 is any(3, 10) 3 ^ 10 is one(3, 10) 3 and 10 is 10 3 or 10 is 3 3 xor 10 is Nil not 3 is False
Rascal
<lang rascal>import IO;
public void logic(bool a, bool b){ println("a and b, is <a && b>"); println("a or b, is <a || b>"); println("a equivalent to b, is <a <==> b>"); println("a implies b, is <a ==> b>"); println("not a", <!a>"); }</lang>
- Output:
rascal>logic(false, false); a and b, is false a or b, is false a equivalent to b, is true a implies b, is true not a, true ok
REBOL
<lang rebol>logics: func [a [logic!] b [logic!]] [
print ['and tab a and b] print ['or tab a or b] print ['not tab not a] print ['xor tab a xor b]
print ['and~ tab and~ a b] print ['or~ tab or~ a b] print ['xor~ tab xor~ a b]
print ['any tab any [a b]] print ['all tab all [a b]]
]</lang>
Example:
>> logics true false and false or true not false xor true and~ false or~ true xor~ true any true all none
Relation
<lang Relation> program logic(x,y) relation a, b, op, result insert x, y, "and", x and y insert x, y, "or", x or y insert x, "", "not", not x insert x, y, "xor", x xor y print end program
run logic(0,0) run logic(0,1) run logic(1,0) run logic(1,1) </lang> In Relation TRUE is the number 1 (or any different from 0) and FALSE 0.
ReScript
<lang ReScript>let logic = (a, b) => {
Js.log(string_of_bool(a) ++ " and " ++ string_of_bool(b) ++ " = " ++ string_of_bool(a && b)) Js.log(string_of_bool(a) ++ " or " ++ string_of_bool(b) ++ " = " ++ string_of_bool(a || b))
}
let logic2 = (a) =>
Js.log("not(" ++ string_of_bool(a) ++ ") = " ++ string_of_bool(!a))
logic(true, true) logic(true, false) logic(false, true) logic(false, false)
logic2(true) logic2(false)</lang>
- Output:
$ bsc logical_op.res > logical_op.bs.js $ node logical_op.bs.js true and true = true true or true = true true and false = false true or false = true false and true = false false or true = true false and false = false false or false = false not(true) = false not(false) = true
Retro
<lang Retro>: .bool ( f- ) [ "true" ] [ "false" ] if puts cr ;
- logic ( ab- )
"\na = " puts over .bool "b = " puts dup .bool "\na and b = " puts 2dup and .bool "\na or b = " puts over or .bool "\nnot a = " puts not .bool ;</lang>
REXX
The REXX language's boolean values are well formed:
- 1 (true)
- 0 (false)
Any other value will raise a REXX syntax error condition.
basic boolean functions
<lang rexx>/*REXX program demonstrates some binary (also known as bit or logical) operations.*/
x= 1 ; @x= ' x ' /*set the initial values of X and Y, */ y= 0 ; @y= ' y ' /* and a couple of literals for HDRs. */ /* [↓] echo the X and Y values.*/
call $ 'name', "value" /*display the header (title) line. */ call $ 'x' , x /*display "x" and then the value of X.*/ call $ 'y' , y /* " "y" " " " " " Y */
/* [↓] negate the X; then the Y value.*/
call $ 'name', "negated" /*some REXXes support the ¬ character*/ call $ 'x' , \x /*display "x" and then the value of ¬X*/ call $ 'y' , \y /* " "y" " " " " " ¬Y*/ say say call $ @x, @y, 'AND'; do x=0 to 1; do y=0 to 1; call $ x, y, x & y; end; end call $ @x, @y, 'OR' ; do x=0 to 1; do y=0 to 1; call $ x, y, x | y; end; end call $ @x, @y, 'XOR'; do x=0 to 1; do y=0 to 1; call $ x, y, x && y; end; end exit 0 /*stick a fork in it, we're all done. */ /*──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────*/ $: parse arg @.1, @.2, @.3, @.4; hdr= length(@.1) \== 1; if hdr then say
do j=0 to hdr; _= do k=1 for arg(); _= _ center(@.k, 7) end /*k*/ say _ @.= copies('═', 7) /*define a new header separator line. */ end /*j*/ return</lang>
- output when using the default (internal) inputs:
name value ═══════ ═══════ x 1 y 0 name negated ═══════ ═══════ x 0 y 1 x y AND ═══════ ═══════ ═══════ 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 x y OR ═══════ ═══════ ═══════ 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 x y XOR ═══════ ═══════ ═══════ 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0
extended boolean functions
All sixteen boolean functions could easily be shown. <lang rexx>/*REXX pgm demonstrates some binary (also known as bit or logical) extended operations.*/
x= 1 ; @x= ' x ' /*set the initial values of X and Y, */ y= 0 ; @y= ' y ' /* and a couple of literals for HDRs. */ /* [↓] echo the X and Y values.*/
call $ 'name', "value" /*display the header (title) line. */ call $ 'x' , x /*display "x" and then the value of X.*/ call $ 'y' , y /* " "y" " " " " " Y */
/* [↓] negate the X; then the Y value.*/
call $ 'name', "negated" /*some REXXes support the ¬ character*/ call $ 'x' , \x /*display "x" and then the value of ¬X*/ call $ 'y' , \y /* " "y" " " " " " ¬Y*/ say /*note: NXOR is also known as XNOR. */ say /*all 16 boolean operations could ···*/
/* be shown, but only the commonly ···*/ /* known functions will be shown here.*/
call $ @x, @y, 'AND' ; do x=0 to 1; do y=0 to 1; call $ x, y, x & y ; end; end call $ @x, @y, 'NAND'; do x=0 to 1; do y=0 to 1; call $ x, y, \(x & y); end; end call $ @x, @y, 'OR' ; do x=0 to 1; do y=0 to 1; call $ x, y, x | y ; end; end call $ @x, @y, 'NOR' ; do x=0 to 1; do y=0 to 1; call $ x, y, \(x | y); end; end call $ @x, @y, 'XOR' ; do x=0 to 1; do y=0 to 1; call $ x, y, x && y ; end; end call $ @x, @y, 'NXOR'; do x=0 to 1; do y=0 to 1; call $ x, y, \(x && y); end; end exit 0 /*stick a fork in it, we're all done. */ /*──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────*/ $: parse arg @.1, @.2, @.3, @.4; hdr= length(@.1) \== 1; if hdr then say
do j=0 to hdr; _= do k=1 for arg(); _=_ center(@.k, 7) end /*k*/ say _ @.= copies('═', 7) /*define a new separator (header) line.*/ end /*j*/ return</lang>
- output when using the default (internal) inputs:
name value ═══════ ═══════ x 1 y 0 name negated ═══════ ═══════ x 0 y 1 x y AND ═══════ ═══════ ═══════ 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 x y NAND ═══════ ═══════ ═══════ 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 x y OR ═══════ ═══════ ═══════ 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 x y NOR ═══════ ═══════ ═══════ 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 x y XOR ═══════ ═══════ ═══════ 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 x y NXOR ═══════ ═══════ ═══════ 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1
Ring
<lang ring> x = true y = false
see "x and y = " + (x and y) + nl see "x or y = " + (x or y) + nl see "not x = " + (not x) + nl </lang>
RLaB
RLaB allows for standard logic operations.
and/or/not
are synonymous with &&/||/!
. In the case when the argument is a real number (default type of argument) the default statement in the absence of if command is is the argument non-zero.
Therefore
<lang RLaB>
>> x = 5
5
>> y = 0
0
>> !x
0
>> !y
1
>> x && y
0
</lang>
However, if arguments to the functions are of the type integer then the functions operate bit-wise. <lang RLaB> >> x = int(5) 5 >> y = int(0) 0 >> !x -6 >> !y -1 >> x && y 0 </lang>
Robotic
Due to the lack of booleans, there is no way to perform logical operations in Robotic. However, bitwise operators can be used.
Ruby
<lang ruby>def logic(a, b)
print 'a and b: ', a && b, "\n" print 'a or b: ' , a || b, "\n" print 'not a: ' , !a , "\n" print 'a xor b: ' , a ^ b, "\n"
end</lang>
and/or/not
are synonymous with &&/||/!
albeit with lower precedence.
Rust
<lang Rust> fn boolean_ops(a: bool, b: bool) {
println!("{} and {} -> {}", a, b, a && b); println!("{} or {} -> {}", a, b, a || b); println!("{} xor {} -> {}", a, b, a ^ b); println!("not {} -> {}\n", a, !a);
}
fn main() {
boolean_ops(true, true); boolean_ops(true, false); boolean_ops(false, true); boolean_ops(false, false)
} </lang> The Boolean operators || and && are more efficient versions of | and & in that the right-hand operand is only evaluated when the left-hand operand does not already determine the result of the expression.
Scala
In vanilla Scala: <lang scala>def logical(a: Boolean, b: Boolean): Unit = {
println("and: " + (a && b)) println("or: " + (a || b)) println("not: " + !a)
}
logical(true, false)</lang>
With Scalaz: <lang scala>def logical(a: Boolean, b: Boolean): IO[Unit] = for {
_ <- putStrLn("and: " ++ (a && b).shows) _ <- putStrLn("or: " ++ (a || b).shows) _ <- putStrLn("not: " ++ (!a).shows)
} yield ()
logical(true, false).unsafePerformIO</lang>
Scheme
<lang scheme>(define (logic a b)
(display "a and b is ") (display (and a b)) (newline) (display "a or b is ") (display (or a b)) (newline) (display "not a is ") (display (not a)) (newline))</lang>
Seed7
<lang seed7>const proc: writeLogic (in boolean: a, in boolean: b) is func
begin writeln("a and b is " <& a and b); writeln("a or b is " <& a or b); writeln("not a is " <& not a); end func;</lang>
Self
<lang self>true not = false. ( true && false ) = false. ( true ^^ false ) = true. "xor" ( true || false ) = true. "or" </lang>
Sidef
<lang ruby>func logic(a, b) {
say ("a and b: ", a && b); say ("a or b: ", a || b); say ("a xor b: ", a ^ b); say (" not a: ", !a);
}
logic(false, true);</lang>
- Output:
a and b: false a or b: true a xor b: true not a: true
SkookumScript
SkookumScript has a Boolean
class with two possible values: true
or false
. Conditionals such as if
expect a Boolean
type and no other types can be implicitly coerced to a Boolean
though they can be explicitly converted. Likewise Boolean
cannot be implicitly coerced to an Integer
value.
This makes a closure that takes two Boolean values. Booleans can be indicated by predicate identifier names that end with a question mark ?
.
<lang javascript>!logic:
(a? b?) [ println("a and b: " a and b) println("a or b: " a or b) println("not a: " not a) println("a xor b: " a xor b) println("a nand b: " a nand b) println("a nor b: " a nor b) println("a not xor b: " a nxor b) ]
</lang>
Example call:
<lang javascript>logic(true false)</lang>
Slate
<lang slate>{#/\. #\/. #not} do: [ |:func|
func arity = 1 ifTrue: [inform: 'True ' ; (func as: String) ; ' = ' ; (func sendTo: {True}) printString. inform: 'False ' ; (func as: String) ; ' = ' ; (func sendTo: {False}) printString.].
func arity = 2 ifTrue: [{{True. True}. {True. False}. {False. True}. {False. False}} do: [ |:each| inform: each first printString ; (func as: String) ; each second printString ; ' = ' ; (func sendTo: each) printString]]
].</lang>
- Output:
True/\True = True True/\False = False False/\True = False False/\False = False True\/True = True True\/False = True False\/True = True False\/False = False True not = False False not = True
Smalltalk
Logical operators "&"(and) and "|" (or) are evaluating their arg (i.e. <expr1> OP <expr2> will evaluate expr2 in any situation).
There are also non-evaluating versions named "and:" and "or:", which only evaluate expr2 if the result is not already determined by expr1.
<lang smalltalk>|test| test := [ :a :b |
('%1 %2 %3 = %4' % { a. 'and'. b. (a & b) }) displayNl. ('%1 %2 %3 = %4' % { a. 'or'. b. (a | b) }) displayNl. ('%1 %2 = %3' % {'not'. a. (a not) }) displayNl
].
test value: true value: true. test value: false value: false. test value: true value: false. test value: false value: true.</lang>
<lang smalltalk>a implies: b a xor: b</lang>
Standard ML
<lang sml>fun print_logic (a, b) = (
print ("a and b is " ^ Bool.toString (a andalso b) ^ "\n"); print ("a or b is " ^ Bool.toString (a orelse b) ^ "\n"); print ("not a is " ^ Bool.toString (not a) ^ "\n")
)</lang>
Stata
Stata does not have a boolean type, and uses instead 0 and 1 to denote resp. false and true.
<lang stata>prog def bool args a b di `a'&`b' di `a'|`b' di !`a' end</lang>
Likewise in Mata:
<lang stata>function bool(a,b) { printf("%f\n",a&b) printf("%f\n",a|b) printf("%f\n",!a) }</lang>
Swift
<lang swift>func logic(a: Bool, b: Bool) {
println("a AND b: \(a && b)"); println("a OR b: \(a || b)"); println("NOT a: \(!a)");
}</lang>
Additionally, ^ is used for XOR and == is used for "equal to" (a.k.a. bidirectional implication).
Tcl
<lang tcl>proc logic {a b} {
puts "a and b: [expr {$a && $b}]" puts "a or b: [expr {$a || $b}]" puts "not a: [expr {!$a}]"
}</lang>
Terraform
The Hashicorp Configuration Language ( HCL ) does not support user defined functions. It only supports AND, OR and NOT logical operations. HCL is not meant for generic programming but I don't see an use case for a logarithm function in a language meant to provision infrastructure either. So......
<lang terraform>
- Aamrun, August 15th 2022
variable "a" {
type = bool default = true
}
variable "b" {
type = bool default = false
}
output "a_and_b" {
value = var.a && var.b
}
output "a_or_b" {
value = var.a || var.b
}
output "not_a" {
value = !var.a
} </lang> Invocation and output :
$ terraform apply -var="a=true" -var="b=false" -auto-approve No changes. Your infrastructure matches the configuration. Terraform has compared your real infrastructure against your configuration and found no differences, so no changes are needed. Apply complete! Resources: 0 added, 0 changed, 0 destroyed. Outputs: a_and_b = false a_or_b = true not_a = false $
Toka
This is an adaption of the code from the Forth example. Toka provides TRUE/FALSE flags that are the same as the well-formed flags in Forth.
<lang toka>[ 0 <> [ ." true" ] [ ." false"] ifTrueFalse ] is .bool [ ( a b -- )
cr ." a = " over .bool ." b = " dup .bool cr ." a and b = " 2dup and .bool cr ." a or b = " over or .bool cr ." not a = " 0 = .bool
] is logic</lang>
uBasic/4tH
uBasic/4tH does not have logical operators, but every non-zero value will be considered TRUE in conditional statements. However, comparison operators (like =, #, < and >) can be used in expressions and will return fully qualified booleans. Hence, simple arithmetic operators will do the trick just fine. <lang>Proc _Boolean(4, 2) Proc _Boolean(0, 2) Proc _Boolean(2, 0)
End
_Boolean Param(2)
a@ = a@ # 0 ' Transform to true booleans b@ = b@ # 0
print "A and B is "; a@ * b@ ' Multiplication will now do AND print "A or B is "; a@ + b@ ' Addition will now do OR print "not A is "; a@ = 0 ' This will invert the boolean value print
Return</lang>
- Output:
A and B is 1 A or B is 2 not A is 0 A and B is 0 A or B is 1 not A is 1 A and B is 0 A or B is 1 not A is 0 0 OK, 0:63
UNIX Shell
The shell has at least two levels of logical operators. Conditional logic (if, while, && and || at the statement level) operates on commands; the commands are executed, and their exit status determines their value in a Boolean context. If they return an exit code of 0, signaling successful execution, that is considered a "true" result; if they return a nonzero exit code, signaling a failure condition, that is considered a "false" result. However, these results are not returned as a Boolean value. if command; then do something; fi will do something if the command succeeds, but there's no "true" value, only the zero exit status. So this demo uses a function that examines the exit status of the last command and prints "true" if it is 0 and "false" otherwise. The two values for the task are the commands true and false, which do nothing but exit with status 0 and 1, respectively.
<lang bash>function boolVal {
if (( ! $? )); then echo true else echo false fi
}
a=true b=false printf '%s and %s = %s\n' "$a" "$b" "$("$a" && "$b"; boolVal)" printf '%s or %s = %s\n' "$a" "$b" "$("$a" || "$b"; boolVal)" printf 'not %s = %s\n' "$a" "$(! "$a"; boolVal)"</lang>
- Output:
true and false = false true or false = true not true = false
A different variety of Boolean logic is available inside arithmetic expressions, using the C convention of 0=false and nonzero=true=1:
<lang bash>a=1 b=0 printf '%d and %d = %d\n' "$a" "$b" "$(( a && b ))" printf '%d or %d = %d\n' "$a" "$b" "$(( a || b ))" printf 'not %d = %d\n' "$a" "$(( ! a ))"</lang>
- Output:
1 and 0 = 0 1 or 0 = 1 not 1 = 0
V
Using stack shuffles.
<lang v>[mylogic
[get2 [dup] dip swap [dup] dip]. get2 and puts get2 or puts swap not puts pop ].</lang>
Using view. <lang v>[mylogic
[get2 [a b : a b a b] view]. get2 and puts get2 or puts swap not puts pop ].</lang>
Using internal defines
<lang v>[mylogic [a b] let
a b and puts a b or puts a not puts
].</lang>
Vala
<lang vala>public class Program {
private static void print_logic (bool a, bool b) { print ("a and b is %s\n", (a && b).to_string ()); print ("a or b is %s\n", (a || b).to_string ()); print ("not a %s\n", (!a).to_string ()); } public static int main (string[] args) { if (args.length < 3) error ("Provide 2 arguments!"); bool a = bool.parse (args[1]); bool b = bool.parse (args[2]); print_logic (a, b); return 0; }
}</lang>
Verilog
<lang Verilog>module main; integer a, b;
initial begin a = 1; //true b = 0; //false $display(a && b); //AND $display(a || b); //OR $display(!a); //NOT $finish ; end
endmodule</lang>
Visual Basic .NET
<lang vbnet>Function Test(ByVal a As Boolean, ByVal b As Boolean)
Console.WriteLine("And " & a And b) Console.WriteLine("Or " & a Or b) Console.WriteLine("Not " & Not a) Console.WriteLine("Xor " & a Xor b) Console.WriteLine("And, short-circuited " & a AndAlso b) Console.WriteLine("Or, short-circuited " & a OrElse b)
End Function</lang>
Wren
Wren has a built in Bool type which has two instances true and false which are also keywords.
The Bool class overrides, the ! operator which it inherits from the Object class so that !true is false and !false is true as one would expect.
Unlike some other C fanily languages, the Bool class doesn't support the operators &, |, ^ and ~ which, in Wren, only apply to bitwise operations on unsigned 32-bit integers.
However, it does support the short-circuiting && and || logical operators as well as the conditional (or ternary) operator ?: all of which behave as expected. <lang ecmascript>var f = Fn.new { |a, b|
System.print("a = %(a)") System.print("b = %(b)") System.print("!a = %(!a)") System.print("a && b = %(a && b)") System.print("a || b = %(a || b)") System.print()
}
var tests = [ [true, true], [true, false], [false, true], [false, false] ] for (test in tests) f.call(test[0], test[1])</lang>
- Output:
a = true b = true !a = false a && b = true a || b = true a = true b = false !a = false a && b = false a || b = true a = false b = true !a = true a && b = false a || b = true a = false b = false !a = true a && b = false a || b = false
XLISP
<lang lisp>(defun logical-functions (a b)
(print `(a and b = ,(and a b))) (print `(a or b = ,(or a b))) (print `(not a = ,(not a))) )</lang>
XPL0
Logical operations and bitwise operations are the same. The command word 'false' = 0 and 'true' = -1. These values are produced by comparison operations, such as A>=B. Any integer not equal to zero is considered true. Real numbers cannot be used as booleans. Symbols can be used instead: & = and, ! = or, ~ = not, | = xor. Note that not 1, which is true, is $FFFFFFFE, which is also true. Despite this, it's simple and convenient to combine logical and bitwise operations.
<lang XPL0>include c:\cxpl\codes; \intrinsic 'code' declarations
func Logic(A, B); int A, B; [HexOut(0, A and B); ChOut(0, ^ );
HexOut(0, A or B); ChOut(0, ^ ); HexOut(0, not A); ChOut(0, ^ ); HexOut(0, A xor B);
]; \Logic
[Logic(false, false); CrLf(0);
Logic(true, false); CrLf(0); Logic(true, true); CrLf(0); Logic(1, 1); CrLf(0); Logic(1, 2); CrLf(0);
]</lang>
- Output:
00000000 00000000 FFFFFFFF 00000000 00000000 FFFFFFFF 00000000 FFFFFFFF FFFFFFFF FFFFFFFF 00000000 00000000 00000001 00000001 FFFFFFFE 00000000 00000000 00000003 FFFFFFFE 00000003
XSLT
<lang xml><xsl:template name="logic">
<xsl:param name="a" select="true()"/> <xsl:param name="b" select="false()"/> <fo:block>a and b = <xsl:value-of select="$a and $b"/></fo:block> <fo:block>a or b = <xsl:value-of select="$a or $b"/></fo:block> <fo:block>not a = <xsl:value-of select="not($a)"/></fo:block> </xsl:template></lang>
zkl
Logical and/or do the logic and returns one of the ops. <lang zkl>fcn f(a,b){a and b} fcn g(a,b){a or b} fcn h(a){(not a)}</lang>
f(0,1) //-->0 f(1,2) //-->2 f(True,True) //-->True f(True,False) //-->False g(0,1) //-->1 g(1,2) //-->1 g(True,True) //-->True g(True,False) //-->True h(0) //-->True h(1) //-->False h(True) //-->False h(False) //-->True
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