Variables
Demonstrate a language's methods of:
![Task](http://static.miraheze.org/rosettacodewiki/thumb/b/ba/Rcode-button-task-crushed.png/64px-Rcode-button-task-crushed.png)
You are encouraged to solve this task according to the task description, using any language you may know.
- Task
- variable declaration
- initialization
- assignment
- datatypes
- scope
- referencing, and
- other variable related facilities
11l
To declare a
as an integer:
<lang 11l>Int a</lang>
Type of variables may be inferred: <lang 11l>V a = 1</lang>
Multiple variables may be defined in a single line as follows: <lang 11l>Int p, a, d</lang>
360 Assembly
- assignment, reference, referencing
<lang 360asm>* value of F
L 2,F assigment r2=f
- reference (or address) of F
LA 3,F reference r3=@f
- referencing (or indexing) of reg3 (r3->f)
L 4,0(3) referencing r4=%r3=%@f=f</lang>
- declarations, initialization, datatypes
<lang 360asm>* declarations length C DS C character 1 X DS X character hexa 1 B DS B character bin 1 H DS H half word 2 F DS F full word 4 E DS F single float 4 D DS D double float 8 L DS L extended float 16 S DS CL12 string 12 P DS PL16 packed decimal 16 Z DS ZL32 zoned decimal 32
- declarations + initialization
CI DC C'7' character 1 XI DC X'F7' character hexa 1 BI DC B'11110111' character bin 1 HI DC H'7' half word 2 FI DC F'7' full word 4 EI DC F'7.8E3' single float 4 DI DC D'7.8E3' double float 8 LI DC L'7.8E3' extended float 16 SI DC CL12'789' string 12 PI DC PL16'7' packed decimal 16 ZI DC ZL32'7' zoned decimal 32</lang>
- scope
In BAL (Basic Assembler Language), variables are global and there is no scope.
6502 Assembly
Declaration
Declaration is not actually needed in 6502 Assembly. Any portion of RAM can be read or written at any time. However, it is very helpful to use descriptive labels of memory locations. Different assemblers handle this differently, with directives such as "Equals" equ
, "Enumerate" .enum
, "Reserve Storage Space" .rs
, or "Define Storage Bytes:.dsb
. These directives allow you to name a memory address to something you can more easily remember than an arbitrary number. One important caveat to note is that the equ
directives do not take up space in your program. This is easier to illustrate with an example than explain in words:
<lang 6502asm> org $1200
SoundRam equ $1200 ;some assemblers require equ directives to not be indented.
SoundChannel_One equ $1200
SoundChannel_Two equ $1201
SoundChannel_Three equ $1202
LDA #$FF ;this still gets assembled starting at $1200, since equ directives don't take up space!</lang>
Each example below is equivalent, but which one you use depends on the assembler.
The equ
method:
<lang 6502asm>joystick equ $00 ;this variable is located at zero page memory address $00
Player_Xpos equ $01 ;this variable is located at $01
Player_Ypos equ $02
pointer equ $03 ;intended to take up 2 bytes
sound_on equ $05</lang>
The enum
method:
<lang 6502asm>enum $0000
- these will be defined starting at $0000 and increasing in the order listed, incremented by the amount after DSB.
joystick dsb 1 ;this takes up 1 byte Player_Xpos dsb 1 Player_Ypos dsb 1 pointer dsb 2 ;this takes up 2 bytes sound_on dsb 1 ende ;end enumeration</lang>
The rs
method:
<lang 6502asm>.rsset $0000
joystick .rs 1
Player_Xpos .rs 1
Player_Ypos .rs 1
pointer .rs 2
sound_on .rs 1
- no closer needed for this method</lang>
Initialization
This mostly depends on the hardware you are programming for. If the code runs in RAM, you can initialize an entire block of RAM to the value of choice with ds <count>,<value>
(replace count and value with numbers of your choice, no arrow brackets.) On systems like the NES which have dedicated RAM areas on the CPU and the whole program is in ROM, you're best off setting all RAM to zero on startup and initializing the ram to the desired values at runtime.
Assignment
Assignment is done by storing values into memory. Variables larger than 8 bits will need to be loaded in pieces. <lang 6502asm>LDA #$05 STA Player1_Lives ;equivalent C code: Player1_Lives = 5;
LDA #$05 STA pointer+1 LDA #$40 STA pointer
- loads the variable pointer with the value $0540</lang>
Datatypes
The 6502 can only handle one data type natively: 8 bit. Anything larger will need to be represented by multiple memory locations. Since the CPU is little-endian the low byte should be "first," i.e. if you have a variable declared such as pointer dsb 2
then the low byte must be stored in pointer
and the high byte in pointer+1
. (You do not declare pointer+1
separately; the assembler will take pointer+1
to mean the memory address directly after pointer
. The 6502 uses consecutive zero-page memory locations as a means of indirect addressing.)
Scope
The 6502 has no concept of scope; every variable is global. Assemblers can enforce scope rules to allow the reuse of labels you would want to use frequently, like "skip," "continue," "done," etc., but normally each label can't be defined more than once in the same program. You can trick the assembler into (effectively although not technically) letting you re-use the same label with bank switching but for the most part each label must be unique.
Referencing
Labels are always defined at compile time. The assembler converts each label into the value or address it represents as part of the assembling process. The CPU doesn't know the labels even exist; labels are simply a convenience for the programmer. Once defined, a label can be used in place of an address or value.
<lang 6502asm>NametableBase equ $20 ;label referring to a constant VRAM_ADDR equ $2006 ;label referring to a memory address VRAM_DATA equ $2007 ;label referring to a memory address
LDA #NametableBase ;without a # this is interpreted as a memory address like any other number would be. STA VRAM_ADDR LDA #$00 STA VRAM_ADDR
LDA #$03 STA VRAM_DATA</lang>
68000 Assembly
Typically a variable is just a named memory location that exists in RAM. For ROM cartridge software, equ
directives are used to assign names to memory locations. For programs that run from disk, which are loaded into RAM and executed from there, the DC
directives can also be used, and then the programmer places a label in front of those directives.
<lang 68000devpac>MyVar: DC.L 0 ;reserves 4 bytes of storage. The label MyVar represents the address of the four 0 bytes shown here.
MyOtherVar: DC.L $C0 ;reserves 8 bytes of storage. The first four bytes are initialized to 00 00 00 C0 and the second four to $00 $00 $01 $F4. DC.L 500 ;MyOtherVar points to the first four bytes, you'll need pointer arithmetic to get to the second four.</lang>
8086 Assembly
A variable is just a value in some memory location that can be read from and written to. Declaring a variable in an assembler can be done with labels. If your code is executed from RAM, as is the case with most home computers, variables can be initialized prior to runtime.
<lang asm>.data MyVar word 0FFFFh ;the leading zero is just to help the assembler tell that this is a number, it's not actually part of the variable.
.code
mov ax, word ptr [ds:MyVar]</lang>
Programs written for ROM cartridge-based systems like the WonderSwan can't use the method above to initialize variables at compile time; however the programmer can equate a memory location with a label that describes what will be stored there. Unfortunately this means that you can't be sure what the system's RAM will contain at startup, so you'll usually have to wipe it clean before the user is allowed to play.
<lang asm>Player1_Lives equ 0100h mov al,3 mov byte ptr [Player1_Lives],al ;give the player 3 lives to start the game with</lang>
Scope is a little more complicated on 8086 Assembly than most other assembly languages. The segmented memory model means that a segment register must point to the segment where a variable is located before it can be used; however in practice this takes little effort on the programmer's part, regardless of where they are in the program. There is nothing stopping you from changing the values stored in segment registers, however if you have multiple variables in multiple different segments you'll end up juggling which segments are accessible at a given point, which is not a good place to be. Fortunately, you don't need to actually remember which segment a labeled variable is stored in, as the assembler can work that out for you:
<lang asm> mov ax, seg MyData ;the assembler replaces this with the segment MyData is located in prior to assembling the program. mov ds,ax ;load this segment into the data segment register.</lang>
Some segments, such as those for video memory, can't be reliably looked up with seg
. Thankfully, they're nearly always constant values, so you can just use an equ
directive to label them.
8th
There is only one type of variable in 8th, and it is simply a single-item container which can contain any of the known data-types: <lang forth> \ declare a variable which is initialized to the number '0' var x
\ declare a variable which is initialized to a string "cat" "cat" var, y
\ Get the value in x, add 20 and store it: x @ 20 n:+ x !
\ Change the cat to a dog: "dog" y ! </lang>
AArch64 Assembly
<lang AArch64 Assembly> /* ARM assembly AARCH64 Raspberry PI 3B */ /* program variable64.s */
/*******************************************/ /* Constantes file */ /*******************************************/ /* for this file see task include a file in language AArch64 assembly*/ .include "../includeConstantesARM64.inc" /*********************************/ /* Initialized data */ /*********************************/ .data szString: .asciz "String définition" sArea1: .fill 11, 1, ' ' // 11 spaces
// or
sArea2: .space 11,' ' // 11 spaces
cCharac: .byte '\n' // character cByte1: .byte 0b10101 // 1 byte binary value
hHalfWord1: .hword 0xFF // 2 bytes value hexa .align 4 iInteger1: .int 123456 // 4 bytes value decimal iInteger3: .short 0500 // 4 bytes value octal iInteger5: .int 0x4000 // 4 bytes value hexa
iInteger7: .word 0x4000 // 4 bytes value hexa iInteger6: .int 04000 // 4 bytes value octal
TabInteger4: .int 5,4,3,2 // Area of 4 integers = 4 * 4 = 16 bytes
dDoubleInt1: .quad 0xFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF // 8 bytes value hexa
dfFLOAT1: .double 0f-31415926535897932384626433832795028841971.693993751E-40 // Float 8 bytes sfFLOAT2: .float 0f-31415926535897932384626433832795028841971.693993751E-40 // Float 4 bytes (or use .single)
/*********************************/ /* UnInitialized data */ /*********************************/ .bss sBuffer: .skip 500 // 500 bytes values zero iInteger2: .skip 4 // 4 bytes value zero dDoubleint2: .skip 8 // 8 bytes value zero /*********************************/ /* code section */ /*********************************/ .text .global main main: // entry of program
ldr x0,qAdriInteger2 // load variable address mov x1,#100 str x1,[x0] // init variable iInteger2
100: // standard end of the program
mov x0, 0 // return code mov x8, EXIT // request to exit program svc 0 // perform the system call
qAdriInteger2: .quad iInteger2 // variable address iInteger2
</lang>
Ada
<lang ada>Name: declare -- a local declaration block has an optional name
A : constant Integer := 42; -- Create a constant X : String := "Hello"; -- Create and initialize a local variable Y : Integer; -- Create an uninitialized variable Z : Integer renames Y: -- Rename Y (creates a view) function F (X: Integer) return Integer is -- Inside, all declarations outside are visible when not hidden: X, Y, Z are global with respect to F. X: Integer := Z; -- hides the outer X which however can be referred to by Name.X begin ... end F; -- locally declared variables stop to exist here
begin
Y := 1; -- Assign variable declare X: Float := -42.0E-10; -- hides the outer X (can be referred to Name.X like in F) begin ... end;
end Name; -- End of the scope</lang>
ALGOL 68
Local variables are generally called local variables in ALGOL 68. Variables must be declared before use. In traditional ALGOL 68, variables must be declared before any labels: in a compound-clause. The declaration of a variable, without assigning a value takes the form: <typename> <variablename>; <lang algol68>int j;</lang> Some common types are: char, string, short int, int, long int, real, long real, bits and bytes .
Multiple variables may be defined in a single statement as follows: <lang algol68>LONG REAL double1, double2, double3;</lang> It is possible to initialize variables with expressions having known values when they are defined. The syntax follows the form <typename> <variablename> := <initializing expression>; <lang algol68>SHORT INT b1 := 2500; LONG INT elwood = 3*bsize, jake = bsize -2;</lang> The strings in ALGOL 68 are flex arrays of char. To declare initial space for a string of exactly to 20 characters, the following declaration is used. <lang algol68>FLEX[20]CHAR mystring;</lang> All arrays are structure that include both the lower lwb and upper upb of the array. Hence strings in ALGOL 68 may safely contain null characters and can be reassigned with longer or shorter strings.
To declare an initialized string that won't be changed the following declaration may be used: <lang algol68>[]CHAR mytext = "The ALGOL 68 Language";</lang> There are more rules regarding arrays, variables containing pointers, dynamic allocation, and initialization that are too extensive to cover here.
ALGOL W
Algol W is block structured, following the rules established by Algol 60. There are variables of the following basic types: integer, real, long real, complex, long complex, bits, logical, string.
Logical variables (usually called boolean in other languages) hold true/false values. Bits variables hold bit strings. Strings are fixed length, between 1 and 256 characters long. The length is part of the type. case is not significant in variable names.
Declarations must appear at the beginning of the block they are contained in, before the first executable statement. Declaration is separate from initialisation - there is no separate initialisation syntax (except for fields of a record - see below), normal assignments are used: <lang algolw>% declare some variables % integer a1, a2; real b; long real c; complex d; long complex f; logical g; bits h; string(32) j;
% assign "initial values" % f := d := c := b := a2 := a1 := 0; % multiple assignment % g := false; h := #a0; j := "Hello, World!"; </lang>
Records can be declared, composed of fields of the basic types and references to records. E.g.: <lang algolw>record R1 ( integer length; string(256) text ); reference(R1) ref1, ref2;</lang> In the above, R1 is a structure containing an integer and a string. Ref1 and ref2 are variables that will refer to instances of the R1 structure. References can be declared that can refer to a number of different record structures. The allowable references must be specified in the declaration E.g.: <lang algolw>record person( string(32) name; integer age ); record date( integer day, month, year ); reference(person, date) ref3;</lang> In the above, ref3 can hold references to either a person or a date. Variables that are references to the basic types are not allowed. E.g.: <lang algolw>reference(integer) refInt; % an illegal declaration %</lang> The following could be used instead: <lang algolw>record INT_VALUE ( integer val ); reference(INT_VALUE) refInt;</lang>
Fields are referred to via a function-like notation, e.g.: <lang algolw>% using the person record defined above...%
reference (person) someone; someone := person % create a new person structure with uninitialised fields % name(someone) := "Fred"; % initialise the fields % age(someone) := 27; % could also initialise the fields when the record is created: % someone := person( "Harry", 32 );</lang>
Arrays of the basic types and references can also be declared, but records cannot contain arrays. There are no procedure variables though procedures can be passed as parameters to other procedures, as can arrays, references and the basic types. Procedures can return basic types and references.
Apex
<lang Apex> // If not initialized at class/member level, it will be set to null Integer x = 0; Integer y; // y is null here Integer p,q,r; // declare multiple variables Integer i=1,j=2,k=3; // declare and initialize
/*
* Similar to Integer, below variables can be initialized together separated by ','.
- /
String s = 'a string'; Decimal d = 0.0; Double dbl = 0.0; Blob blb = Blob.valueOf('Any String'); Boolean b = true; AClassName cls = new AClassName(); </lang>
AppleScript
Variables are untyped in AppleScript, but they must be instantiated before use.
Example:<lang AppleScript>set x to 1</lang>
Scope may be explicitly defined before instantiation using either the global
or local
declarations.<lang AppleScript>global x
set x to 1
local y
set y to 2</lang>If undeclared, AppleScript will automatically set the scope based on the following rule: variables declared at the top level of any script will be (implicit) globals, variables declared anywhere else will be (implicit) locals. Scope cannot be changed after being explicitly or implicitly defined.
Where a variable has both local and global instances, it is possible to use the my
modifier to access the global (top-level) instantiation.
Example:<lang AppleScript>on localx()
set x to 0 -- implicit local
return x
end localx
on globalx() set x to 0 -- implicit local return my x end globalx
on run set x to 1 -- top-level implicit global return {localx(), globalx()} end run --> RETURNS: {0, 1}</lang>
Applescript also supports top-level entities known as properties
that are global to that script.
Example:<lang AppleScript>property x : 1</lang>Properties behave exactly as global variables except that they are persistent. Their most recent values are retained between script executions (or until the script is recompiled).
ARM Assembly
<lang ARM Assembly> /* ARM assembly Raspberry PI */ /* program variable.s */
/************************************/ /* Constantes Définition */ /************************************/ .equ STDOUT, 1 @ Linux output console .equ EXIT, 1 @ Linux syscall .equ WRITE, 4 @ Linux syscall /*********************************/ /* Initialized data */ /*********************************/ .data szString: .asciz "String définition" sArea1: .fill 11, 1, ' ' @ 11 spaces
@ or
sArea2: .space 11,' ' @ 11 spaces
cCharac: .byte '\n' @ character cByte1: .byte 0b10101 @ 1 byte binary value
hHalfWord1: .hword 0xFF @ 2 bytes value hexa .align 4 iInteger1: .int 123456 @ 4 bytes value decimal iInteger3: .short 0500 @ 4 bytes value octal iPointer1: .int 0x4000 @ 4 bytes value hexa
@ or
iPointer2: .word 0x4000 @ 4 bytes value hexa iPointer3: .int 04000 @ 4 bytes value octal
TabInteger4: .int 5,4,3,2 @ Area of 4 integers = 4 * 4 = 16 bytes
iDoubleInt1: .quad 0xFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF @ 8 bytes
dfFLOAT1: .double 0f-31415926535897932384626433832795028841971.693993751E-40 @ Float 8 bytes sfFLOAT2: .float 0f-31415926535897932384626433832795028841971.693993751E-40 @ Float 4 bytes (or use .single)
/*********************************/ /* UnInitialized data */ /*********************************/ .bss sBuffer: .skip 500 @ 500 bytes values zero iInteger2: .skip 4 @ 4 bytes value zero /*********************************/ /* code section */ /*********************************/ .text .global main main: @ entry of program
ldr r0,iAdriInteger2 @ load variable address mov r1,#100 str r1,[r0] @ init variable iInteger2
100: @ standard end of the program
mov r0, #0 @ return code mov r7, #EXIT @ request to exit program svc #0 @ perform the system call
iAdriInteger2: .int iInteger2 @ variable address iInteger2
</lang>
Arturo
<lang rebol>num: 10 str: "hello world"
arrA: [1 2 3] arrB: ["one" "two" "three"] arrC: [1 "two" [3 4 5]] arrD: ["one" true [ print "something" ]]
dict: [ name: "john" surname: "doe" function: $[][ print "do sth" ] ]
inspect symbols</lang>
AutoHotkey
<lang autohotkey>x = hello ; assign verbatim as a string z := 3 + 4 ; assign an expression if !y ; uninitialized variables are assumed to be 0 or "" (blank string) Msgbox %x% ; variable dereferencing is done by surrounding '%' signs fx() { local x ; variable default scope in a function is local anyways global y ; static z=4 ; initialized once, then value is remembered between function calls }</lang>
AWK
Dynamic variables
<lang awk>BEGIN {
- Variables are dynamically typecast, and do not need declaration prior to use:
fruit = "banana" # create a variable, and fill it with a string a = 1 # create a variable, and fill it with a numeric value a = "apple" # re-use the above variable for a string print a, fruit
- Multiple assignments are possible from within a single statement:
x = y = z = 3 print "x,y,z:", x,y,z
- "dynamically typecast" means the content of a variable is used
- as needed by the current operation, e.g. for a calculation:
a = "1" b = "2banana" c = "3*4"
print "a,b,c=",a,b,c, "c+0=", c+0, 0+c print "a+b=", a+b, "b+c=", b+c
}</lang>
- Output:
apple banana x,y,z: 3 3 3 a,b,c= 1 2banana 3*4 c+0= 3 3 a+b= 3 b+c= 5
Numeric values are always real, there is no separate datatype for integer.
awk also has Arrays.
Assignment on commandline
It is possible to assign value to variables from the commandline: <lang awk># usage: awk -v x=9 -f test.awk BEGIN {
y = 3 z = x+y print "x,y,z:", x,y,z printf( "x=%d,y=%d,z=%d:", x,y,z )
}</lang>
- Output:
with "-v x=9"
x,y,z: 9 3 12 x=9, y=3, z=12
- Output:
without "-v" (x stays empty, which counts as zero in calculations)
x,y,z: 3 3 x=0, y=3, z=3
Global scope
Variables have global scope, and there is no way to make a variable local to a block.
However, function arguments are local,
so it is possible to make a variable local to a function
by listing the variable as an additional dummy function argument
after the required arguments:
<lang awk>function foo(s, k) {
# s is an argument passed from caller # k is a dummy not passed by caller, but because it is # in the argument list, it will have a scope local to the function k = length(s) print "'" s "' contains", k, "characters"
} BEGIN {
k = 42 s = "Test" foo("Demo") print "k is still", k foo(s,k) print "k still is", k
}</lang>
- Output:
'Demo' contains 4 characters k is still 42 'Test' contains 4 characters k still is 42
Builtin variables
There are some special variables:
When reading a line of input, the contents of that line
are automatically split into a number of variables:
- $0 is the whole input-line
- $1 is the first field
- $2 is the 2nd field, etc.
- NF is the number of fields
- $NF is the contents of the last field.
<lang awk># Feeding standard-input with echo: echo -e "2 apples 0.44$ \n 3 banana 0.33$" | awk '{p=$1*$NF; sum+=p; print $2,":",p; }; END{print "Sum=",sum}'</lang> With more data, this would look like
awk '{p=$1*$NF; sum+=p; print $2,":",p; }; END{print "Sum=",sum}' inputfile
or more typically:
awk -f report.awk inputfile
- Output:
apples : 0.88 banana : 0.99 Sum= 1.87
Axe
In Axe, variables are global because they are (mostly) static references to memory locations. This means there is also no scope. <lang axe>1→A</lang>
The letters A-Z and theta are all general-purpose variables. They are located at the end of the L₁ memory region by default, but they can be reallocated to any region of free memory: <lang axe>#Realloc(L₂)</lang>
The variables r₁ through r₆ are used for function arguments. They are automatically set as the arguments passed to the function. However, they behave otherwise just like normal variables.
Other variables include pointers such as Str0-Str9, GDB0-GDB9, and Pic0-Pic9. These are effectively constant and are assigned at compile time to point to static data.
BASIC
In BASIC, variables are global and there is no scope. However, it is an error to reference a variable before it has been assigned.
<lang gwbasic>10 LET A=1.3 20 LET B%=1.3: REM The sigil indicates an integer, so this will be rounded down 30 LET C$="0121": REM The sigil indicates a string data type. the leading zero is not truncated 40 DIM D(10): REM Create an array of 10 digits 50 DIM E$(5.10): REM Create an array of 5 strings, with a maximum length of 10 characters 60 LET D(1)=1.3: REM Assign the first element of d 70 LET E$(3)="ROSE": REM Assign a value to the third string 80 PRINT D(3): REM Unassigned array elements have a default value of zero 90 PRINT E$(3): REM Ten spaces because string arrays are not dynamic 100 PRINT E$(3);"TTA CODE": REM There will be spaces between rose and etta 110 DIM F%(10): REM Integers use less space than floating point values 120 PRINT G: REM This is an error because f has not been defined 130 PRINT D(0): REM This is an error because elements are numbered from one 140 LET D(11)=6: REM This is an error because d only has 10 elements 150 PRINT F%: REM This is an error because we have not provided an element number 160 END</lang>
Applesoft BASIC
In Applesoft BASIC, variables are global and there is no scope. And, it is not an error to reference a variable before it has been assigned. The LET keyword is optional. Almost all math is done using floating point numbers by default. Using floating point variables is almost always faster than using integer variables which require extra conversion between floating point and integer. Integers use less space than floating point values. Applesoft BASIC array indexes start at zero.
<lang ApplesoftBasic> 10 A = 1.7: REM LET IS NOT REQUIRED
20 LET B% = 1.7: REM THE PERCENT SIGN INDICATES AN INTEGER; THIS GETS TRUNCATED DOWN 30 LET C$ = "0121": REM THE DOLLAR SIGN INDICATES A STRING DATA TYPE. THE LEADING ZERO IS NOT TRUNCATED 40 DIM D(20): REM CREATE AN ARRAY OF 21 FLOATING POINT NUMBERS 50 DIM E$(5,10): REM CREATE A TWO DIMENSIONAL ARRAY OF 66 STRINGS 60 LET D(1) = 1.3: REM ASSIGN THE SECOND ELEMENT OF D 70 Y$(3) = "ROSE": REM ASSIGN A VALUE TO THE FOURTH STRING 80 PRINT X: REM UNASSIGNED FLOATING POINT AND INTEGER VARIABLES HAVE A DEFAULT VALUE OF ZERO 90 PRINT Y$(2): REM UNASSIGNED STRING VARIABLES ARE EMPTY 100 PRINT Y$(3);"TTA CODE": REM THERE WON'T BE SPACES BETWEEN ROSE AND ETTA 110 F%(10) = 0: REM IF ARRAYS ARE NOT DECLARED THEY HAVE 11 ELEMENTS BY DEFAULT; IE. DIM F%(10) 120 PRINT G: REM THIS PRINTS 0 AND IS NOT AN ERROR EVEN THOUGH G HAS NOT BEEN DEFINED 130 PRINT D(0): REM THIS IS NOT AN ERROR BECAUSE ELEMENTS ARE NUMBERED FROM ZERO. 140 PRINT F%: REM THIS PRINTS 0 BECAUSE F% IS A DIFFERENT VARIABLE THAN THE ARRAY F%(10) 150 LET D(21) = 6: REM THIS IS AN ERROR BECAUSE D ONLY HAS 21 ELEMENTS INDEXED FROM 0 TO 20.</lang>
Commodore BASIC
In Commodore BASIC, variables are global and there is no scope, and as with other BASIC dialects, it is not an error to reference a variable before it has been assigned.
The LET keyword is optional. Almost all math is done using floating point numbers by default. Using floating point variables is almost always faster than using integer variables which require extra conversion between floating point and integer. Integers use less space than floating point values.
Naming and Data Types
A variable can be uniquely identified with a maximum of two (2) alpha-numeric characters, and the first must be a letter. The type of variable is identified with either a %
or $
or no symbol at all. Certain reserved words that are two characters long cannot be used as variables (e.g. TO
, ON
, etc.)
Symbol | Variable Type |
---|---|
(none) | Floating point number |
% | Integer number |
$ | String |
There are functions available to convert between number and string types.
Comparison of Variables
All variables, including strings, can be compared using the comparitive operators <
,>
, and =
. Note: String comparison follows character order in Commodore PETSCII, that is, A is less than ♠ in uppercase/graphics mode, while A is greater than a in mixed case mode. Conventional ASCII would have a greater than A.
Arrays
Arrays can be used for any of the above types. In other dialects of BASIC, it may be necessary to initialize an array with the DIM command before any use, however in Commodore BASIC, one and two dimensional arrays of up to 11 elements (index 0 through 10) in one or both dimensions may be used without any initial DIMensioning. Any array larger than 11 elements in either dimension, or more than two dimensions of any size, must be initialized with DIM
prior to use.
In theory, arrays can be of any size, however BASIC memory limits must be observed. For example, a single dimension string array of 256 elements (0 through 255) would theoretically occupy ALL of the Commodore 64's 64 kilobytes of RAM... 255 elements each holding 255 bytes of string data. However, only a little under 40 kilobytes is available in all of the default BASIC RAM space, which must be shared for program storage as well as runtime variable storage.
With each of the three data types, and including the possibility of arrays, a
, a%
, a$
, a(0)
, a%(0)
, and a$(0)
represent at least six (6) unique variables, plus any additional elements which might be part of the array definitions.
Demonstration Program
<lang gwbasic>1 rem rosetta code 5 rem commodore basic variable demonstration 10 print chr$(147);chr$(14);:ti$="000000":rem see lines 420-460 15 rem numeric variables default to 0; strings default to empty 20 print a:print b%:print c$:print 25 : 30 rem no symbol after variable defaults to float. 35 let a=1.7 40 rem "let" is not required and rarely used. 45 b=2.42 50 print a:print b 55 rem % means integer type; digits after decimal are truncated 60 b%=1.7 65 print b% 70 rem $ means string type 75 c$="Commodore" 80 print c$:print 85 : 90 rem each type is unique, even when name is "same" 95 a=5.0 100 a%=9 105 a$="twenty-five" 110 print a:print a%:print a$:print 115 : 120 rem names unique only to two characters; extra ignored 125 li=10:lives=8:lights=64 130 print li:print lives:print lights:print 135 rem second character can be alphanumeric, but is not array 140 s1=100 : s2=200 : s3=300 145 print s1:print s2:print s3:print 150 gosub 5000 155 : 160 rem strings preserve all literal characters 165 rem numerics drop leading zeros and trailing zeros after decimal 170 n$="01276":print n$:rem 01276 175 o%=01276:print n%: rem 1276 180 p=4.900:print p: print: rem 4.9 185 : 190 rem string-numeric conversion functions 195 c$="05034" 200 c%=val(c$) : rem converts to the numeric value of 5034 (first zero dropped) 205 d=123.45600 : rem define a float 210 d$=str$(d) : rem converts above into a string 215 print c$:print c%:print d:print d$:print 218 : 220 rem strings can be ordered/compared > or < like numbers 225 input "Enter a string";x$:print 230 input "Enter another string";y$:print 235 if x$>y$ then print x$;" comes after ";y$ 240 if x$<y$ then print x$;" comes before ";y$ 245 if x$=y$ then print "You entered the same string twice!" 250 gosub 5000 255 : 260 rem numbers have a leading character for pos/neg sign 265 rem " " means positive 270 a=-52:b=124 275 print a:print b:print 280 : 285 rem variable operations 290 e$="endothermic":print e$ 295 print left$(e$,3) : rem "end" 300 print right$(e$,3) : rem "mic" 305 print mid$(e$,4,5) : rem "other" 310 print 315 a=5:b=20:c=a+b:print a;"+";b;"=";c : rem addition 320 q=90:r=60:s=q-r:print s : rem subtraction 325 x=3:y=4:z=x*y:print x;"*";y;"=";z : rem 12 multiplication 330 l=12:m=16:n=l/m:print l;"/";m;"=";n :rem division 335 rem string concatenation 340 print 345 f$="John":l$="Jones":n$=l$+", "+f$:print f$:print l$:print n$ 350 gosub 5000 355 : 360 rem arrays can be single or multidimensional 365 rem array index starts at 0 370 rem single dimenstion arrays of 11 elements or less 375 rem do not need to be DIMensioned 380 a$(0)="first":a$(1)="second":a$(3)="third":rem we skipped index 2 385 for i=0 to 3:print a$(i):next 390 gosub 5000 395 dim b(1,20) : rem 42 elements 400 for i=0 to 1:for j=0 to 20:b(i,j)=(i+1)*j:next j,i 405 for i=0 to 1:print chr$(19):for j=0 to 20:print tab(i*6);b(i,j):next j,i 410 gosub 5000 415 : 420 rem special variables - ti and st are technically functions, 425 rem but ti$ can be assigned a value similar to a string variable 430 t$=left$(ti$,2)+":"+mid$(ti$,3,2)+":"+right$(ti$,2) 435 print "Ticks since program started:":print ti 440 print "Elapsed time since program started:":print t$ 445 print "I/O Status:";st : rem i/o status 450 print:print "Enter new time (HHMMSS): ";:gosub 5200 455 ti$=t$:gosub 5500 460 print 465 : 470 rem all variables can be cleared with the "clr" statement 475 rem however, this also clears the return address stack for subroutines 480 rem making "return" not possible. 485 print "Before CLR:":print a:print a$:print a$(0):print b:print c 490 clr:print:print "After CLR:" 495 print a:print a$:print a$(0):print b:print c 500 print 505 end 600 : 700 rem supporting subroutines 800 : 5000 rem screen pause routine 5005 print:print "press a key to continue" 5010 get k$:if k$="" then 5010 5015 print chr$(147):return 5020 : 5200 rem custom time input routine 5205 t$="":for d=1 to 6 5210 get k$:if k$<"0" or k$>"9" then 5210 5215 t$=t$+k$:print k$;:next 5220 return 5230 : 5500 rem display live clock 5505 print chr$(147):print:print "Press a key to continue." 5510 print chr$(19);"Time: "left$(ti$,2)":"mid$(ti$,3,2)":"right$(ti$,2); 5515 get k$:if k$="" then 5510 5520 print chr$(147);:return</lang>
Modifications for Enhanced TIME$
Some models allow TI$
to be a seven digit number able to track 1/10 seconds as the final digit. Use the following modifications for those models (e.g. CBM-II):
<lang gwbasic>10 print chr$(147);chr$(14);:ti$="0000000":rem see lines 420-460
430 t$=left$(ti$,2)+":"+mid$(ti$,3,2)+":"+mid$(ti$,5,2)+"."+right$(ti$,1)
5205 t$="":for d=1 to 7
5500 rem display live clock 5505 print chr$(147):print:print "Press a key to continue." 5510 t$=left$(ti$,2)+":"+mid$(ti$,3,2)+":"+mid$(ti$,5,2)+"."+right$(ti$,1) 5515 print chr$(19);"Time: "t$ 5520 get k$:if k$="" then 5510 5525 print chr$(147);:return</lang>
Tiny BASIC
<lang tiny basic>REM Tiny Basic has exactly 26 variables. REM They start off initialised to zero.
PRINT A
REM The only data type is sixteen-bit signed integer. REM They are assigned using the LET statement. REM Their scope is the whole program.
LET B = -12345
REM The integer arithmetic operations of + - * and / can be used REM and so can the unary negative and positive operators - +
LET C = 1 + B - B/5 LET A = -B PRINT "B is ", B PRINT "C is ", C GOSUB 10
REM The comparison operators = < > <= >= <> are available, REM but their results are not expressions and can only be used in an REM if statement.
LET D = 3 IF D <> 7 THEN LET D = 7 GOTO D-2 PRINT "Skip this" 5 PRINT "Gotos and gosubs can be computed. Beware of moving spaghetti." END
10 PRINT "B is now ", B
RETURN
REM Tiny Basic does not support arrays or pointers. Strings can REM be used, but only as string constants within a PRINT statement.</lang>
Batch File
Batch file variables are not limited to data types and they do not need to be initialized before use.
<lang dos> @echo off
- setting variables in defferent ways
set myInt1=5 set myString1=Rosetta Code set "myInt2=5" set "myString2=Rosetta Code"
- Arithmetic
set /a myInt1=%myInt1%+1 set /a myInt2+=1 set /a myInt3=myInt2+ 5
set myInt set myString pause>nul </lang>
BBC BASIC
<lang bbcbasic> REM BBC BASIC (for Windows) has the following scalar variable types;
REM the type is explicitly indicated by means of a suffix character. REM Variable names must start with A-Z, a-z, _ or `, and may contain REM any of those characters plus 0-9 and @; they are case-sensitive. A& = 123 : REM Unsigned 8-bit byte (0 to 255) A% = 12345678 : REM Signed 32-bit integer (-2147483648 to +2147483647) A = 123.45E6 : REM Variant 40-bit float or 32-bit integer (no suffix) A# = 123.45E6 : REM Variant 64-bit double or 32-bit integer A$ = "Abcdef" : REM String (0 to 65535 bytes) REM Scalar variables do not need to be declared but must be initialised REM before being read, otherwise a 'No such variable' error is reported REM The static integer variables A% to Z% are permanently defined. REM BBC BASIC also has indirection operators which allow variable-like REM entities to be created in memory: DIM addr 7 : REM Allocate 8 bytes of heap ?addr = 123 : REM Unsigned 8-bit byte (0 to 255) !addr = 12345 : REM Signed 32-bit integer (-2147483648 to +2147483647) |addr = 12.34 : REM Variant 40-bit or 64-bit float or 32-bit integer $addr = "Abc" : REM String terminated by CR (0 to 65535 bytes) $$addr = "Abc": REM String terminated by NUL (0 to 65535 bytes) REM The integer indirection operators may be used in a dyadic form: offset = 4 addr?offset = 12345678 : REM Unsigned 8-bit byte at addr+offset addr!offset = 12345678 : REM Signed 32-bit integer at addr+offset REM All variables in BBC BASIC have global scope unless they are used REM as a formal parameter of a function or procedure, or are declared REM as LOCAL or PRIVATE. This is different from most other BASICs.</lang>
Boo
Variable Declaration Boo is a statically typed language. Types can either be explicitly declared or inferred after being intitialized
x as int // declares an integer
y = 23 // declares an integer and assigns the value 23
foo as string // string declaration
foo = "Boo!" // string assignment
pi as double // double floating point declaration
stuff = 32.2322 // double assignment
Boo Variable Types
sbyte: -128 to 127
short: -32768 to 32767
int: -2147483648 to 2147483647
long: -9223372036854775808 to 9223372036854775807
byte: 0 to 255
ushort:0 to 65535
uint: 0 to 4294967295
ulong: 0 to 18446744073709551615
single: Approximately ±1.5 x 10-45 - ±3.4 x 1038 with 7 significant figures
double: Approximately ±5.0 x 10-324 - ±1.7 x 10308 with 15 significant figures
decimal: Approximately ±1.0 x 10-28 - ±7.9 x 1028 with 28 significant figures
char: Any UTF-16 character
bool: True or False
BQN
BQN variables are declared and initialized using the ←
symbol. The following code block creates a variable a
with value 10.
<lang bqn>a ← 10</lang>
Variables can be modified using the ↩
symbol after they are declared.
BQN uses lexical scoping, where scopes correspond roughly to the blocks they are contained in. A more detailed description can be found in the scoping documentation or specification.
Name matching is case-insensitive, and ignores underscores. While any name can store any value, each instance of a name has a syntactic role determined by BQN's spelling rules:
- A name with a subject role if it starts with a lowercase letter.
- A name with a function role starts with an uppercase letter.
- A name with a 1-modifier role starts with an underscore, and doesn't end with an underscore.
- A name with a 2-modifier role starts with an underscore, and ends with an underscore.
Bracmat
Variable declaration.
Variables local to a function (i
and j
in the example below) can be declared just before the body of a function.
<lang bracmat>(myfunc=i j.!arg:(?i.?j)&!i+!j)</lang>
Global variables are created the first time they are assigned a value.
Initialization.
Local variables are initialised to 0
.
Assignment. There are two ways.
To assign unevaluated code to a variable, you normally would use the <variable>=<unevaluated expression>
syntax.
To assign an evaluated expression to a variable, you use pattern matching as in <evaluated expression>:?<variable>
Datatypes. There are no datatypes. The nature of an expression is observed by pattern matching.
Scope. Local variables have dynamic scope.
Referencing. Variables are referenced using the !<variable>
syntax.
Other variable related facilities.
Global variables (name as well as value) can be removed from memory with the built-in tbl
function.
The names of built-in functions such as put
and lst
can be used as variable names without adverse effects on the built-in function. It is not possible to redefine built-in functions to do something different.
C
Local variables are generally called auto variables in C. Variables must be declared before use. The declaration of a variable, without assigning a value takes the form <typename> <variablename>; <lang c>int j;</lang> Some common types are: char, short, int, long, float, double and unsigned.
Multiple variables may be defined in a single statement as follows: <lang c>double double1, double2, double3;</lang> It is possible to initialize variables with expressions having known values when they are defined. The syntax follows the form <typename> <variablename> = <initializing expression>; <lang c>short b1 = 2500; long elwood = 3*BSIZE, jake = BSIZE -2;</lang> Strings in C are arrays of char terminated by a 0 or NULL character. To declare space for a string of up to 20 characters, the following declaration is used. <lang c>char mystring[21];</lang> The extra length leaves room for the terminating 0.
To declare an initialized string that won't be changed the following declaration may be used: <lang c>const char * mytext = "The C Language";</lang> There are more rules regarding arrays, variables containing pointers, dynamic allocation, and initialization that are too extensive to cover here.
C#
Variables in C# are very dynamic, in the form that they can be declared practically anywhere, with any scope. As in other languages, often used variables are: int, string, double etc.
They are declared with the type first, as in C: <lang csharp>int j;</lang>
Multiple variables may be defined in a single line as follows: <lang csharp>int p, a, d;</lang>
It is also possible to assign variables, either while declaring or in the program logic: <lang csharp>int a = 4; int b; int c = Func(a);
b = 5;</lang>
C++
Much like C, C++ variables are declared at the very start of the program after the headers are declared. To declare a as an integer you say: the type of variable; then the variable followed by a semicolon ";". <lang cpp>int a;</lang> From C++11, type of variables may be inferred: <lang cpp>auto a = 1; // int a = 1</lang>
Template variables are specified with template parameters in angle brackets after the class name: <lang cpp>std::vector<int> intVec;</lang>
Caché ObjectScript
Variable type is not declared for local variables. <lang>set MyStr = "A string" set MyInt = 4 set MyFloat = 1.3</lang>
Array variables use a subscript as an element index.
The size is set automatically when a new element is added.
Each element can have an arbitrary number of sub elements.
Arrays are automatically sorted by subscript.
<lang>set MyArray(1) = "element 1" set MyArray(2) = "element 2" set MyArray(2,1) = "sub element 1 of element 2" set MyArray("Element 3") "element indexed by a string" set MyArray = "Root element" </lang>
Global variables are persistent. They remain set even after reboot.
Global variables work the same as array variables.
Global variables are indicated with the '^' character.
<lang>
set ^MyGlobal("a subscript") = "My Value"
</lang>
Process private global variables exist for the lifetime of the process, can only be accessed by the process that instantiated it and are indicated as follows:
<lang>
set ^||MyProcessPrivateGlobal("subscript 1") = "value"
</lang>
ChucK
Much like C or C++, declared but not initialized: <lang> int a; </lang> Multiple declaration: <lang>int b,c,d; </lang> Declared and initialized: <lang>0 => int e;</lang>
Clojure
Clojure allows global variable declaration and initialization with def and the macros that expand into it (e.g. defn, defmacro). In Clojure, this is known as 'interning a var'. Clojure encourages immutable programming, but often does not enforce it: def and most of its related forms can be used successfully more than once with the same symbol in the same namespace, although this is considered bad style. A vast majority of real-world Clojure uses the def forms for global scope, and let-like bindings (loop, for, doseq) for local scope. Clojure provides options such as alter-var-root and with-redefs for more advanced use.
Declaration only: <lang lisp>(declare foo)</lang> <lang lisp>(def bar)</lang>
Global scope initialization: <lang lisp>(def foo 42)</lang> <lang lisp>(defonce bar 42)</lang> <lang lisp>(defn baz [x] 42)</lang> <lang lisp>(defmacro qux [x] 42)</lang>
Local scope initialization: <lang lisp>(let [foo 42] ...)</lang>
Local re-binding of dynamic global var: <lang lisp>(def ^:dynamic foo 10) (binding [foo 20] ...)</lang>
Clojure is a dynamically typed language, but does support the use of type-hints in the form of metadata. This can improve performance when interop with the host language would otherwise cause reflection: <lang lisp>(defn len [^String x]
(.length x))</lang>
For mutable programming, Clojure provides atoms, refs, and agents. These can be stored in a var to allow managed, thread-safe mutation. atoms are the most common way to store state, but refs and agents can be used when coordinated and asynchronous functionality is required, respectively. <lang lisp>(def foo (atom 42))</lang> <lang lisp>(def bar (ref 42))</lang> <lang lisp>(def baz (agent 42))</lang>
COBOL
For example usage of array variables in COBOL, see Arrays#COBOL.
Assignment
Variables can be assigned values using either MOVE
or SET
. SET
is used for assigning values to indexes, pointers and object references, and MOVE
is used for everything else.
<lang cobol>MOVE 5 TO x
MOVE FUNCTION SOME-FUNC(x) TO y
MOVE "foo" TO z
MOVE "values 1234" TO group-item
SET some-index TO 5</lang>
One of COBOL's more well-known features is MOVE CORRESPONDING
, where variables subordinate to a group item are assigned the values of variables with the same names in a different group item. The snippet below uses this to reverse the date:
<lang cobol>01 normal-date.
03 year PIC 9(4). 03 FILLER PIC X VALUE "-". 03 month PIC 99. 03 FILLER PIC X VALUE "-". 03 dday PIC 99. *> Misspelling is intentional; day is a reserved word.
01 reversed-date.
03 dday PIC 99. 03 FILLER PIC X VALUE "-". 03 month PIC 99. 03 FILLER PIC X VALUE "-". 03 year PIC 9(4).
... PROCEDURE DIVISION.
MOVE "2012-11-10" TO normal-date MOVE CORR normal-date TO reversed-date DISPLAY reversed-date *> Shows '10-11-2012'</lang>
Declaration
Variables in COBOL are declared in the DATA DIVISION
. In standard COBOL, they can be declared within it in:
- the
FILE SECTION
, where sort-files/file records are defined and associated with their respective file/sort descriptions. - the
WORKING-STORAGE SECTION
, where static data is declared. - the
LOCAL-STORAGE SECTION
, where automatic data is declared. - the
LINKAGE SECTION
, where parameters are defined. - the
REPORT SECTION
, where reports are defined and associated with report descriptions. - the
SCREEN SECTION
, where the screens used for terminal I/O are described.
Variables are defined in the following format: level-number variable-name clauses.
Variable type is defined in a PICTURE
clause and/or a USAGE
clause. PICTURE
clauses can be used like so:
<lang cobol>01 a PIC X(20). *> a is a string of 20 characters.
01 b PIC 9(10). *> b is a 10-digit integer.
01 c PIC 9(10)V9(5). *> c is a decimal number with a 10-digit integral part and a 5-digit fractional part.
01 d PIC 99/99/99. *> d is an edited number, with a slash between each pair of digits in a 6-digit integer.</lang>
The USAGE
clause is used to define pointers, floating-point numbers, binary numbers, packed decimals and object references amongst others.
Each variable has a level-number, which is a number from 1 to 49, or 77, which goes before the variable name. Level-numbers indicate how data is grouped together.
Variables with higher level-numbers are subordinate to variables with lower level-numbers.
The 77 level-number indicates the variable has no subordinate data and is therefore not a group item. Group items can include FILLER
items which are parts of a group item which are not directly accessible.
<lang cobol>*> Group data items do not have a picture clause.
01 group-item.
03 sub-data PIC X(10). 03 more-sub-data PIC X(10).</lang>
Initialization
Initialization is done via the VALUE
clause in the DATA DIVISION
or via the INITIALIZE
statement in the PROCEDURE DIVISION
. The INITIALIZE
statement will set a variable back to either the value in its VALUE
clause (if INITIALIZE
has a VALUE
clause) or to the appropriate value out of NULL
, SPACES
or ZERO
.
<lang cobol>DATA DIVISION.
WORKING-STORAGE SECTION.
01 initialized-data PIC X(15) VALUE "Hello, World!".
01 other-data PIC X(15).
...
PROCEDURE DIVISION.
DISPLAY initialized-data *> Shows 'Hello, World!' DISPLAY other-data *> Will probably show 15 spaces.</lang>
Group items can be initialized, but they are initialized with a string like so: <lang cobol>01 group-item VALUE "Hello!12345".
03 a-string PIC X(6). *> Contains "Hello!" 03 a-number PIC 9(5). *> Contains '12345'.</lang>
Reference Modification
Reference modification allows a range of characters to be taken from a variable. <lang cobol>some-str (1:1) *> Gets the first character from the string some-num (1:3) *> Get the first three digits from the number another-string (5:) *> Get everything from the 5th character/digit onwards.
- > To reference modify an array element
some-table (1) (5:1) *> Get the 5th character from the 1st element in the table</lang>
Scope
Variables by default are local to the subprogram/class/etc. (source element) they are defined in. The GLOBAL
clause allows the variable to be accessed in any nested source units as well. To be accessed from those inner source elements, the variable must be redeclared exactly as it was in the outer one, complete with GLOBAL
clause, otherwise the variable in the inner one will shadow the global variable from the outer one.
Common Lisp
Declaration
Special variables are more or less like globals in other languages: http://www.lispworks.com/documentation/HyperSpec/Body/d_specia.htm
Special variables may be defined with defparameter.
<lang lisp>(defparameter *x* nil "nothing")</lang>
Here, the variable *x* is assigned the value nil. Special variables are wrapped with asterisks (called 'earmuffs'). The third argument is a docstring.
We may also use defvar, which works like defparameter except that defvar won't overwrite the value of the variable that has already been bound.
<lang lisp>(defvar *x* 42 "The answer.")</lang>
It does, however, overwrite the docstring, which you can verify:
<lang lisp>(documentation '*x* 'variable)</lang>
defconstant works in the same way, but binds a constant. Constants are wrapped with '+' signs rather than earmuffs.
Common Lisp is case-insensitive, so saying (equal +MoBy-DicK+ +moby-dick+)
will return t no matter the combination of upper and lower-case letters used in the symbol names. Symbols are hyphenated and lower-case.
For local varibles, we use let:
<lang lisp>(let ((jenny (list 8 6 7 5 3 0 9))
hobo-joe) (apply #'+ jenny))</lang>
The symbols 'jenny' and 'hobo-joe' are lexically bound meaning that they are valid within the scope of the let block. If we move the apply form out of scope, the compiler will complain that 'jenny' is unbound.
The let macro binds an arbitrary number of variables: 'jenny' is bound to a list of numbers, whereas hobo-joe is bound to nil because we haven't provided a value. jenny and hobo-joe have the same scope.
Common Lisp prefers to use variables in lexical, rather than dynamic scope. If we've defined *x* as a special variable, then binding it lexically with let will create a new local value while leaving the dynamically scoped *x* untouched.
<lang lisp>(progn
(let ((*x* 43)) (print *x*) (print *x*))</lang>
If *x* has previously been bound to the value 42, then this example will output 43, then 42.
Mutation
We use setf to modify the value of a symbol.
<lang lisp>(setf *x* 625)</lang>
We can also modify multiple symbols sequentially:
<lang lisp>(setf *x* 42 *y* (1+ *x*)) =>43</lang>
The return value is of the last form evaluated. In that example, *x* is referred to twice, and the value applied to *y* depends on the modified value of *x*. We can use psetf to set variables in parallel:
<lang lisp>(setf *x* 625) (psetf *x* 42 *y* (1+ *x*) =>NIL</lang>
The return value is NIL, but the resulting value of *y* is 626 instead of 43.
Types
Common Lisp is dynamically typed, so we don't have to explicitly tell it what type of value a symbol holds. We nonetheless have the option of being explicit about which types our functions use through ftype declarations, which tell the compiler what to expect:
<lang lisp>(declaim (ftype (function (fixnum) fixnum) frobnicate)) (defun frobnicate (x)
(+ x 42))</lang>
In this example, the function frobnicate must be written to take one fixnum (i.e., a fixed-width integer as opposed to a bignum) and must return a fixnum. Having been given this type information, the compiler can now assert that the function works the way we've told it it does, and will throw an error when you've made a mistake in implementing or calling the function. The compiler may also use more performant fixnum-specific arithmetic functions instead of the generic arithmetic functions.
You can give the compiler the same information using in-function type declarations and the the operator:
<lang lisp>(defun frobnicate (x)
(declare (type fixnum x)) (the fixnum (+ x 128)))</lang>
The declare statement applies to the function in which the statement appears. In the example, we assert to the compiler that x is a fixnum. In some compilers, the tells the compiler the type returned by an expression; we want our frobnicate to only ever return a fixnum and to throw an error if anything causes the return value to be anything other than a fixnum.
D
<lang D> float bite = 36.321; ///_Defines a floating-point number (float), "bite", with a value of 36.321 float[3] bites; ///_Defines a static array of 3 floats float[] more_bites; ///_Defines a dynamic array of floats </lang>
DBL
<lang DBL>;
- Variables examples for DBL version 4 by Dario B.
.DEFINE NR,10 ;const .DEFINE AP,"PIPPO" ;const
RECORD CUSTOM
COD, D5 NAME, A80 ZIP, D6 CITY, A80
- -----------------------
RECORD
ALPHA, A5 ;alphanumeric NUMBR, D5 ;number DECML, F5.2 ;float NUMVE, 10D5 ;array of number NUMAR, [10,2]D5 ;array of number ALPV1, 10A8 ;array of alphanumeric ALPV2, [NR]A8 ;array of alphanumeric ALPA1, [10,2]A8 ;array of alphanumeric
NUMV, 3D3,100,200,300 ALPV, 2A3,'ABC','FGH','KLM' MSX, A9,"VARIABLES" MSG, A*,'Esempio di variabile autodimensionante'
PROC
- -----------------------------------------------------------------------
CLEAR ALPHA,NUMBR,DEML,NUMVE(1:10*5),NUMAR(1:10*2*5),ALPV1(1:10*8) CLEAR ALPV2(1:10*8),ALPA1(1:10*2*8) ALPHA="PIPPO" NUMBR=10 DECML=20.55
CLEAR CUSTOM COD=1050 NAME='Dario Benenati' ZIP=27100 CITY="PAVIA"
NUMVE(1:10*5)= NUMVE(1)=1 SET NUMVE(2),NUMVE(3),NUMVE(4)=2 NUMAR(1:10*2*5)= NUMAR[1,1]=11 NUMAR[1,2]=12 NUMAR[2,1]=21 NUMAR[2,2]=22
ALPV1(1:10*8)= ALPV1(1)="PIPPO" APLV1(2)="PLUTO" APLV1(2)="ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP" ;ALPV(3)='IJKLMNOP'
ALPV2(1:10*8)=" " ALPV2[1]="PIPPO" ALPV2(2)="PLUTO" ALPV2[3](3:2)="FO" ALPV2[4](3,4)="FO"
SET ALPA1[1,1],ALPA1[1,2]="PLUTO" ALPA1[2,1](3:2)="FO" ALPA1[2,1](3,4)="FO" ;.....................
</lang>
Delphi
<lang Delphi>var
i: Integer; s: string; o: TObject;
begin
i := 123; s := 'abc'; o := TObject.Create; try // ... finally o.Free; end;
end;</lang>
DM
Types, procs (functions) and variables in DM are built with a very "tree" structure. Because of this, there are lots of ways to define variables. Fundamentally however, the "var" keyword is always used.
Declaring variables: <lang DM>// Both of the following declarations can be seen as a tree, // var -> <varname> var/x var y
// They can also be defined like this. // This is once again a tree structure, but this time the "var" only appears once, and the x and y are children. var
x y
// And like this, still a tree structure. var/x, y </lang>
The type of a variable can be declared like this, note that there is are types for strings or numbers:
<lang DM>// Here, "/obj" is the type, a /obj being a simple game object. var/obj/x // It can also be defined like this, because of the tree structure: var
obj x
// Or this var/obj
x
// ... // You get the idea </lang>
Variables can be assigned, during declaration or later. The compiler does not enforce types here at all.
<lang DM> var/x = 0 x = 10 var/y y = "hi!" </lang>
Diego
Declaration
Declaration of variables is required by the caller with the original source of the variable. If a callee hears of a variable after a declaration, it can ask around or ask the caller for the declaration; ignore the variable and any instructions associated with it; or try to determine the context and/or the callers intentions. I suppose this depends upon the mood of the callee.
syntax:
Use add_var
verb-object (short for 'add variable') or the dim
action (short for 'dimension of'):
add_var(variablename);
or dim(variablename);
...multiple variables can de declared in a comma separated list.
With no datatype specified, the variables are of variant type (as in basic'esque languages). Datatypes are specified using the _datatype_
posit (can be shortened to _dt
):
add_var(variablename)_datatype(datatype);
or dim(variablename)_dt(datatype);
...or using the {}
braces:
add_var({datatype}, variablename);
or dim({datatype}, variablename);
examples:
<lang diego>add_var(v1); dim(v1); add_var(v1, v2, v3, v4); dim(v1, v2, v3, v4); add_var(isRaining)_datatype(boolean); dim(isRaining)_datatype(boolean); add_var(greeting)_dt(string); dim(greeting)_dt(string); add_var({date}, birthdate); dim({date}, birthdate);</lang>
Variables can also be declared at posit state. So, verb-object add_var
becomes posits _addvar
or, shortened, _var
; action dim
becomes a posit. So, for example, during a robot manoeuvre a variable can be declared:
<lang deigo>go_robot(alif)_waypoint(waypoint1)_addvar({bool},alifArriveWaypoint1); go_robot(beh)_waypoint(waypoint1)_var({bool},behArriveWaypoint1); go_robot(teh)_waypoint(waypoint1)_dim({bool},tehArriveWaypoint1);</lang>
Initialisation
Initialisation of variables can exist at declaration (using posit _value
or, the shortened _v
) or after declaration (using with_var
then _value
). The first time the _value
posit is used is the initialisation.
syntax:
add_var..._value(value);
dim..._v(value);
examples:
Initialisation at declaration: <lang diego>add_var({integer},wholeNumber1,wholeNumber2)_value(3); dim({double},realNumber)_v(3.0); add_var({boolean},isRaining)_v(false); add_var(greeting)_datatype(string)_value(Hello, this is World speaking.);</lang>
Initialisation after declaration: <lang diego>with_var(birthdate)_value(24-Jun-1963); [myinteger]_value(33);</lang>
Dynamic initialisation after declaration: <lang diego>[myYearVar]_v(1963); [datename]_v(24-Jun-[myYearVar]);</lang>
Variables that are not initialised are determined to be undefined
. The callee can be sensitive to uninitialised (undefined) variables with its undefined sensitivity setting set_undefined()_sensiti();
. So, for instance, if a callee is sensitive to a undefined variable, it will ask the caller and others in the mist for the declaration of the variable with command with_var(variablename)_askdec();
.
Assignment
Initialisation and assignment are the same, since the first assignment is the initialisation. Direct assignment of variables is achieved, as with the initialisation, using _value
(or shortened _v
) posit after the with_var
verb-object or []
variable referencing brackets, as shown above. Assignment of a variable with other variables and operators can be achieved using the _calc
(short for 'calculation') posit. Within the brackets of _calc
the square brackets []
is be used to reference variables.
syntax:
with_var(variablename)_calc(expression/calculation);
[variablename]_calc(expression/calculation);
examples:
<lang diego>with_var(d)_calc([b]^2-4*[a]*[c]); with_var(E)_calc([m]*[c]^2); with_var(d)_calc([b]^2-4*[a]*[c]);</lang>
Note, instead of using the _calc
posit, all operators can be also be posits, for example:
<lang diego>with_var(E)_equals(m)_multipl(c)_sq(); // E=mc² with_var(c)_inc(); // increment by one with_var(c)_inc(a); // same as with_var(c)_exp(+=[a]);</lang>
Datatypes
Datatypes in Diego are only implied by name following the general-purpose datatypes proposed in ISO/IEC 11404. The datatype given in Diego code is presumed to be the datatype of the caller. The callee will have to presume the datatype name from the caller is the same datatype of the same name by the callee.
syntax:
The syntax of declaring datatypes is achieved using the _datatype
(or shortened _dt
) posit.
add_var..._datatype(datatype)...
dim..._dt(datatype)...
A further shortened use of the {}
brackets can be used inside declarations.
add_var({datatype},variablename);
dim({datatype},variablename);
examples:
<lang diego>add_var(wholeNumber)_datatype(integer); dim({double},myNumber)_v(3.0); with_var(wholenumber)_datatype(integer); with_var({boolean},isRaining)_value(false); // cast/converting datatype</lang>
However, datatypes can be implied to be variables using verb-object and posit commands, as such:
syntax:
add_str(variablename)_value(value)
to declare a string datatype.
with_bool(variablename)_value(value)
to reference a boolean datatype, etc.
_float([variablename]=value)
to declare an integer datatype in posit state.
_int([variablename]),variablename)
to declare an integer datatype in posit state, etc.
examples:
<lang diego>add_str(bobName)_value(Bob); alert_human(bob)_msg(Hi [bobName]); // Hi Bob
alert_human(fred)_msg(Hi [fredName])_str(fredName)_value(Freddy); // Hi Freddy</lang>
Scope
Variable scope is generally described a "public and interpreted" in Diego, as all variables are shared amongst thingys (humans, robots, and mobots). Every variable is 'public access', so scope is only achieved through discernment, swarmation, and discrimination. The keyword me
(used as an verb-action, action, or, posit) is used to keep discernment of other thingys for use of the variable. The use of objects or criteria is used to discriminate against/for humans/robots/mobots. Then excluding objects (or using other criteria) is used to swarmate humans/robots/mobots.
For example:
<lang diego>add_var(greeting)_value(Hello World)_me();</lang>
or
<lang diego>with_me()_var(greeting)_value(Hello World);</lang>
This command will share the variable greeting
and its value with all thingys, but, the other thingys that received this command will not act upon it because they know this variable is for the exclusive use of the caller (me
). This is discernment.
However, the command...
<lang diego>add_var(greeting)_value(Hello World);</lang>
...will share and use the variable greeting
and its value with all thingys that received this command. This is swarmation.
However, the command...
<lang diego>add_var(greeting)_value(Hello World)_for()_computer(cmp1);</lang>
...will share the variable greeting
and its value with all thingys that received this command, but only the computer named cmp1
will use/act upon this variable. This is discrimination.
Scope also occurs within functions (_funct
object in Diego); instructions (_instruct
object in Diego); and, more, using the same approach with scope with variables.
There are also namespaces (using object _namespace
, or, shortened, _ns
) that contain the scope of variables, however, all variables are public inside the namespace, only differentiated between variables of the same signature (i.e. name and datatype).
Referencing
Referencing variables is achieved using the verb-object with_var
, or implied with_var
with the use of ()
and []
brackets, and combinations of.
When referencing variables the use of ()
brackets refers to the name of the variable. Using the []
brackets refers to value of the variable to be the variable name. Using the square brackets nested inside brackets, ([])
, refers the to variable name which can be manipulated. Use of [[]]
refers to the value to the variable name to the value of the variable to be the name of the variable.
For example:
<lang diego>add_var(a); // a = undefined variant add_var({int},b); // b = undefined integer
with_var(a)_value(0); // a = 0 variant with_var({int},a)_v(1); // a = 1 integer with_var([a])_v(2); // a = 2 integer
with_var[a]_v(3); // same as `with_var(3)_v(3);` // callee will ask `with_var(3)_askdec();`
(a)_v(3); // a = 3 integer // same as `add_var(a)_v(3);` ([a])_v(4); // a = 4 integer // same as `add_var([a])_v(4);`
[a]_v(5); // same as `with_var(3)_v(5);` // callee will ask `with_var(3)_askdec();`
(a)_calc([a]+1); // a = 5
add_var({str},varname)_v(a); with_var[varname]_v(6); // a = 6 integer [varname]_inc(); // a = 7 integer // same as `with_var(a)_inc();`
with_var([a]+1); // a = 6 integer with_var([a]+1)_v(7); // a = 8 integer
with_var(varname+1); // a = 9 integer with_varvarname_inc(); // a = 10 integer with_var([varname]+1); // varname = "a1"
with_var({double},a)_v(11); // a = 11.0 double
(varname)_v(a)_inc(2); // varname = "c" // same as `with_var(a)_v(a)_inc(2);` with_var(varname)_v(b); // varname = "b" with_var[varname]_v(0); // b = 0 ([varname])_v(1); // b = 1 // same as `with_var(b)_v(1);`</lang>
The default reference to a variable using []
, refers to the adjacent variable reading from left to right, regardless of whether the variable is named or unnamed, for example:
<lang diego>alert_human(jo)_msg(Hi [])_str(joeName)_v(Joe); // Hi Joe
alert_human(gab)_msg(Hi [])_str()_v(Gabriella); // Hi Gabriella
alert_human(annamarie)_msg(Hi [])_str([a]+'-'[m])_str(a)_v(Anna)_str(m)_v(Marie); // Hi Anna-Marie alert_human(annamarie)_msg(Hi []+'-'+[])_str()_v(Anna)_str()_v(Marie); // Hi Anna-Marie alert_human(annamarie)_msg(Hi [])_str([]+'-'[])_str()_v(Anna)_str()_v(Marie); // Hi Anna-Marie</lang>
Inside various posits, such as, _calc
or _msg
, the square brackets []
are used to escape into variables. Single quote marks can also be used to escape literals, but are optional.
For example:
<lang diego>alert_human(jill)_msg(Hi [jillName] Daniels)_var(jillName)_value(Jill); // Hi Jill Daniels alert_human(jill)_msg('Hi '+[jillName]+' Daniels')_var(jillName)_value(Jill); // Hi Jill Daniels add_var(jillFullName)_calc([jillName]+" Daniels");</lang>
DWScript
See Delphi for "classic" declaration. In DWScript, if variables have to be declared before use, but can be declared inline, and their type can also be inferred.
<lang Delphi> var i := 123; // inferred type of i is Integer var s := 'abc'; // inferred type of s is String var o := TObject.Create; // inferred type of o is TObject var s2 := o.ClassName; // inferred type of s2 is String as that's the type returned by ClassName </lang>
Dyalect
<lang Dyalect>//A constant declaration let pi = 3.14
private {
//private constant, not visible outside of a module let privateConst = 3.3
}
//Variable declaration var x = 42
//Assignment x = 42.42
//Dyalect is a dynamic language, so types are attached //to values, not to the names var foo = (x: 2, y: 4) //foo is of type Tuple var bar = "Hello!" //bar is of type String
//Global variable var g = 1.1
{
//local variable (not visible outside of { } brackets) var loc = 2.2
}
func fun() {
//Local variables, not visible outside of function var x = 1 var y = 2
}
func parent() {
//A local variable inside a parent function var x = 1 func child() { //A local variable inside a nested function //It shadows a parent's variable var x = 2 //But this is how we can reference a variable from //a parent function base.x }
}</lang>
E
E is an impure, lexically scoped language. Variables must be defined before use (they are not created on assignment). Definition of variables is a special case of pattern matching.
An identifier occurring in a pattern is a simple non-assignable variable. The def
operator is usually used to define local variables:
<lang e>def x := 1 x + x # returns 2</lang>
Assignment
The pattern var x
makes x an assignable variable, and :=
is the assignment operator.
<lang e>def var x := 1 x := 2 x # returns 2</lang>
(As a shorthand, var x := ...
is equivalent to def var x := ...
.)
There are update versions of the assignment operator, in the traditional C style (+=
, -=
, |=
, etc.), but also permitting any verb (method name) to be used:
<lang e>def var x := 1 x += 1 # equivalent to x := x + 1, or x := x.add(1) x # returns 2
def var list := ["x"] list with= "y" # equivalent to list := list.with("y") list # returns ["x", "y"]</lang>
Patterns
Since variable definition is part of pattern matching, a list's elements may be distributed into a set of variables:
<lang e>def [hair, eyes, var shirt, var pants] := ["black", "brown", "plaid", "jeans"]</lang>
However, assignment to a list as in Perl or Python is not currently supported.
<lang e>[shirt, pants] := ["white", "black"] # This does not do anything useful.</lang>
Scoping
In E, a variable is visible from the point of its definition until the end of the enclosing block. Variables can even be defined inside expressions (actually, E has no statement/expression distinction):
<lang e>def list := [def x := timer.now(), x] # two copies of the current time list[0] == x # x is still visible here; returns true</lang>
Slots
The difference between assignable and non-assignable variables is defined in terms of primitive operations on non-primitive slot objects. Slots can also be employed by programmers for effects such as variables which have an effect when assigned (e.g. backgroundColor := red
) or automatically change their values over time, but that is beyond the scope of this task. For example, it is possible to transfer a variable between scopes by referring to its slot:
<lang e>def makeSum() {
var a := 0 var b := 0 return [&a, &b, fn { a + b }]
}
def [&x, &y, sum] := makeSum() x := 3 y := 4 sum() # returns 7</lang>
As suggested by the &
syntax, the use of slots is somewhat analogous in effect to C pointers or C++ references, allowing the passing of locations and not their values, and "pass-by-reference" or "out" parameters:
<lang e>def getUniqueId(&counter) {
counter += 1 return counter
}
var idc := 0 getUniqueId(&idc) # returns 1 getUniqueId(&idc) # returns 2</lang>
EasyLang
<lang># it is statically typed
- global number variable
n = 99 print n
- global array of numbers
a[] = [ 2.1 3.14 3 ]
func f . .
# i is local, because it is first used in the function for i range len a[] print a[i] .
. call f
- string
domain$ = "easylang.online" print domain$
- array of strings
fruits$[] = [ "apple" "banana" "orange" ] print fruits$[]</lang>
Eiffel
Variables must be declared before their use with an explicit type. <lang eiffel> class APPLICATION inherit ARGUMENTS create make
feature {NONE} -- Initialization
make -- Run application. local i: INTEGER s: STRING do i := 100 s := "Some string" create a.make_empty end
feature {NONE} -- Class Features
a: ARRAY[INTEGER] </lang> In this example, i and s have local scope and a has global scope. Two variables of the same class cannot have the same name, regardless of scope. Global variables are considered class features and follow the same export status modifiers as normal features.
There are two types of variables, reference or expanded. Reference type variables refer either to an object of the declared datatype, or Void. Expanded type variables always correspond to an object. The basic objects are of expanded type. These include numbers, Booleans, and characters. All variables are objects, and are auto-initialized. For reference types, the initial value is Void. For expanded types, a default creation feature is called.
Variables can be initialized through a creation feature, such as for a in the example above.
Assignment to variables depends on the type of variable <lang eiffel> -- assume A and B are of the same datatype B := A A.some_modification_feature </lang> For reference type variables, B copies the reference of A, so any modifications to A (or B) affects the other. In the case of expanded types, B will copy A (memory-wise copy) so any modification to A (or B) will never be seen by the other.
Ela
Strictly speaking Ela doesn't have variables. Instead Ela provides a support for a declaration of names that can be bound to values. Unlike variables names are immutable - it is not possible to change a value bound to a name.
Global declarations:
<lang ela>x = 42
sum x y = x + y</lang>
Local declarations:
<lang ela>sum x y = let z = x + y in z
sum x y = z
where z = x + y</lang>
Elena
ELENA 5.0: <lang elena>import system'collections;
public program() {
var c := nil; // declaring variable. var a := 3; // declaring and initializing variables var b := "my string".Length; long l := 200l; // declaring strongly typed variable auto lst := new List<int>();
c := b + a; // assigning variable
}</lang>
Erlang
Variables spring into life upon assignment, which can only happen once (single assignment). Their scope is only the local function and they must start with a capital letter. <lang Erlang> two() -> A_variable = 1, A_variable + 1. </lang>
F#
Variables in F# bind a name to a value and are, by default, immutable. They can be declared nearly anywhere and are normally local to the block/assembly they are defined in. They are declared in the form: let name parameters = expression. <lang fsharp>let x = 5 // Int let mutable y = "mutable" // Mutable string let recordType = { foo : 6; bar : 6 } // Record let intWidget = new Widget<int>() // Generic class let add2 x = 2 + x // Function value</lang>
Types are normally inferred from the values they are initialised with. However, types can be explicitly specified using type annotations. <lang fsharp>let intEqual (x : int) (y : int) = x = y let genericEqual x y : 'a = x = y</lang>
Mutable variables are set using the <-
operator.
<lang fsharp>sum <- sum + 1</lang>
Factor
The SYMBOL bit defines a new symbol word which is used to identify variables. use-foo shows how one would modify and get the contents of the variable. named-param-example is an example of using :: to define a word with named inputs, similar to the way other languages do things. Last, but not least, local-example shows how to use [let to define a group of lexically scoped variables inside of a word definition. <lang factor>SYMBOL: foo
- use-foo ( -- )
1 foo set foo get 2 + foo set ! foo now = 3 foo get number>string print ;
- named-param-example ( a b -- )
a b + number>string print ;
- local-example ( -- str ) [let "a" :> b "c" :> a a " " b 3append ] ;</lang>
Falcon
<lang falcon> /* partially created by Aykayayciti Earl Lamont Montgomery April 9th, 2018 */
/* global and local scrope
from the Falcon survival guide book */
// global scope sqr = 1.41
function square( x ) // local scope
sqr = x * x return sqr
end
number = square( 8 ) * sqr
a = [1, 2, 3] // array
b = 1 // variable declaration
e = 1.0 // float
f = "string" // string
/* There are plenty more data types in Falcon */ </lang>
Forth
Local Variables
Historically, Forth has preferred open access to the parameter stack over named local variables. The 1994 standard however added a cell-sized local variable facility and syntax. The semantics are similar to VALUEs: locals are initialized from stack contents at declaration, the name retrieves the value, and TO sets the value of the local name parsed at compile time ("value TO name"). <lang forth>: hypot ( a b -- a^2 + b^2 )
LOCALS| b a | \ note: reverse order from the conventional stack comment b b * a a * + ;</lang>
Modern Forth implementations often extend this facility in several ways, both for more convenient declaration syntax and to be more compatible with foreign function interfaces. Curly braces are used to replace the conventional stack comment with a similar looking local variable declaration. <lang forth>: hypot { a b -- a^2 + b^2 } \ text between "--" and "}" remains commentary
a a * b b * + ;</lang>
Modern systems may also allow different local data types than just integer cells. <lang forth>: length { F: a F: b F: c -- len } \ floating point locals
a a F* b b F* F+ c c F* F+ FSQRT ;</lang>
Global Variables
As mentioned Forth normally uses the parameter stack for input/output arguments. When there is the need for a Global variable Forth simply creates a label and allocates a piece of memory to the variable. When the variable is invoked it does not return the value in the memory but rather it returns the address of the variable on the parameter stack. This is like what other languages call a pointer, however Forth has no such obfuscation. A named memory address is simple to understand. To store a value in the variable the '!' (store) operator is used and to fetch a value from a variable the '@' (fetch) operator is used. VARIABLEs have the same size as the processor's native integer with a minimum size of 16 bits. Double precision variables are created with the word 2VARIABLE that are used with corresponding 2@ and 2! operators.<lang>VARIABLE X 999 X ! \ create variable x, store 999 in X VARIABLE Y -999 Y ! \ create variable y, store -999 in Y 2VARIABLE W 140569874. W 2! \ create and assign a double precision variable </lang> Test at the Forth Console
X @ . 999 ok Y @ . -999 ok X @ Y @ + . 0 ok W 2@ D. 140569874 ok
Fortran
<lang fortran> program test
implicit none
integer :: i !scalar integer integer,dimension(10) :: ivec !integer vector real :: r !scalar real real,dimension(10) :: rvec !real vector character(len=:),allocatable :: char1, char2 !fortran 2003 allocatable strings
!assignments:
!-- scalars:
i = 1 r = 3.14
!-- vectors:
ivec = 1 !(all elements set to 1) ivec(1:5) = 2
rvec(1:9) = 0.0 rvec(10) = 1.0
!-- strings:
char1 = 'hello world!' char2 = char1 !copy from one string to another char2(1:1) = 'H' !change first character
end program test </lang>
FreeBASIC
Variable declaration
<lang freebasic>Dim [Shared] As DataType vble1 [, vble2, ...]</lang>
or
<lang freebasic>Dim [Shared] vble1 As DataType [, vble2 As DataType, ...]</lang>
example:
<lang freebasic>Dim As Integer n1, n2
Dim x As Double
Dim isRaining As Boolean
Dim As String greeting</lang>
Initialization
<lang freebasic>Dim variable As datatype = value
Dim var1,var2,... As datatype</lang>
example:
<lang freebasic>Dim wholeNumber1,wholeNumber2 as Integer = 3
Dim realNumber as Double = 3.0
Dim isRaining as Boolean = False
Dim greeting as String = "Hello, this is World speaking."
Dim longArray() As Long = {0, 1, 2, 3}
Dim twoDimensions (1 To 2, 1 To 5) As Integer => {{1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}}</lang>
Assignment
<lang freebasic>variable = expression</lang>
<lang freebasic> v = a or v => a
d = b^2 - 4*a*c s3 = s1 & mid(s2,3,2)</lang>
<lang freebasic>variable <operator>= expression2</lang> <lang freebasic> c += a
c -= a c *= a c /= a c \= a c ^= a c Mod= a c Shl= n c Shr= n c &= a c And= n c Eqv= n c Imp= n c Or= n c Xor= n </lang>
Standard data types and limits.
Numeric Types
Type | Size (bits) | Format | Minimum Value | Maximum Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
Byte | 8 | signed integer | -128 | +127 |
Ubyte | 8 | unsigned integer | 0 | +255 |
Short | 16 | signed integer | -32768 | +32767 |
Ushort | 16 | unsigned integer | 0 | 65535 |
Long | 32 | signed integer | -2147483648 | +2147483647 |
Ulong | 32 | unsigned integer | 0 | +4294967295 |
Integer | 32/64 | signed integer | 32bit: -2147483648, 64bit: -9223372036854775808 | 32bit: +2147483647, 64bit: +9223372036854775807 |
Uinteger | 32/64 | unsigned integer | 0 | 32bit: +4294967295, 64bit: +18446744073709551615 |
Longint | 64 | signed integer | -9223372036854775808 | +9223372036854775807 |
Ulongint | 64 | unsigned integer | 0 | +18446744073709551615 |
Single | 32 | floating point | +/-1.401 298 E-45 | +/-3.402 823 E+38 |
Double | 64 | floating point | +/-4.940 656 458 412 465 E-324 | +/-1.797 693 134 862 316 E+308 |
enums | 32/64 | signed integer | 32bit: -2147483648, 64bit: -9223372036854775808 | 32bit: +2147483647, 64bit: +9223372036854775807 |
String Types
Type | Character Size (bytes) | Minimum Size (in characters) | Maximum Size (in characters) |
---|---|---|---|
String | 1 | 0 | 32bit: +2147483647, 64bit: +9223372036854775807 |
Zstring | 1 | 0 | 32bit: +2147483647, 64bit: +9223372036854775807 |
Wstring | 0 | 32bit: +2147483647, 64bit: +9223372036854775807 |
Scope
By default the scope of a variable is local to the sub
, function
or module
. Attribute Shared can modify these scopes.
Shared makes module-level variables visible inside Subs and Functions. If Shared is not used on a module-level variable's declaration, the variable is only visible to the module-level code in that file.
Common
Declares a variable which is shared between code modules. A matching Common statement must appear in all other code modules using the variable.
<lang FreeBASIC>Common [Shared] symbolname[()] [AS DataType] [, ...]</lang>
Var
Declares a variable whose type is implied from the initializer expression.
<lang freebasic>Var [Shared] variable = expression
Var variable As datatype Var var1,var2,... As datatype</lang> example: <lang freebasic>Var s2 = "hello" var-len string Var ii = 6728 implicit integer Var id = 6728.0 implicit double</lang>
GAP
<lang gap># At top level, global variables are declared when they are assigned, so one only writes global_var := 1;
- In a function, local variables are declared like this
func := function(n)
local a; a := n*n; return n + a;
end;
- One can test whether a variable is assigned
IsBound(global_var);
- true;
- And destroy a variable
Unbind(global_var);
- This works with list elements too
u := [11, 12, , 14]; IsBound(u[4]);
- true
IsBound(u[3]);
- false
Unbind(u[4]);</lang>
GlovePIE
<lang GlovePIE>if var.end=0 then // Without the code being in this if statement, the code would keep executing until it were to stop. var.end=1 // These variables, respectively, refer to an integer, a boolean, and a string. var.variable1=3 var.variable2=True var.variable3="Hi!" // var.example1 now refers to a string object instead. var.variable1="Bye!" endif</lang>
Go
Simplest and most common
While Go is statically typed, it provides a “short variable declaration” with no type explicitly stated, as in, <lang go>x := 3</lang> This is the equivalent of, <lang go>var x int // declaration x = 3 // assignment</lang> The technique of not stating the type is known as type inference, or duck typing. The right hand side can be any expression. Whatever type it represents is used as the type of the variable. More examples: <lang go>y := x+1 // y is int, assuming declaration above same := x == y // same declared as bool p := &same // type of p is pointer to bool pi := math.Floor(math.Pi) // math.Floor returns float64, so that is the type of pi</lang> Nothing goes uninitialized
Variables declared without initializer expressions are initialized to the zero value for the type. <lang go>var x, y int // two variables, initialized to zero. var p *int // initialized to nil</lang> Opposite C
While putting the variable before the type feels “backwards” to programmers familiar with certain other languages, it succinctly allows multiple variables to be declared with arbitrarily complex type expressions.
List syntax
Variables can be declared in a list with the keyword var used only once. The syntax visually groups variables and sets the declaration off from surrounding code. <lang go>var (
x, y int s string
)</lang> Multiple assignment
Multiple values can be assigned in a single assignment statement, with many uses. <lang go>x, y = y, x // swap x and y sinX, cosX = math.Sincos(x) // Sincos function returns two values // map lookup optionally returns a second value indicating if the key was found. value, ok = mapObject[key]</lang> Other kinds of local variables
Parameters and named return values of functions, methods, and function literals also represent assignable local variables, as in, <lang go>func increase (x int) (more int) {
x++ more = x+x return
}</lang> Parameter x and return value more both act as local variables within the scope of the function, and are both assignable. When the function returns, both go out of scope, although the value of more is then returned as the value of the function.
While assignment of return values is highly useful, assignment of function parameters is often an error. Novice programmers might think that modifying a parameter inside the function will affect a variable used as an argument to the function call. It does not.
Method receivers also represent assignable local variables, and as with function parameters, assigning them inside the method is often a mistake.
Other common errors
Short declarations can involve multiple assignment, as in <lang go>x, y := 3, 4</lang> But there are complications involving scope and variables already defined that confuse many programmers new to Go. A careful reading of the language specification is definitely in order, and a review of misconceptions as discussed on the mailing list is also highly recommended.
Programmers new to the concept of closures often fail to distinguish between assigning free and bound variables. Function literals in Go are closures, and a common novice error is to start multiple goroutines from function literals, and fail to understand that multiple goroutines are accessing the same free variables.
Haskell
You can define a variable at the top (module) level or in a where
, let
, or do
construct.
<lang haskell>foobar = 15
f x = x + foobar
where foobar = 15
f x = let foobar = 15
in x + foobar
f x = do
let foobar = 15 return $ x + foobar</lang>
One particular feature of do
notation looks like assignment, but actually, it's just syntactic sugar for the >>=
operator and a unary lambda.
<lang haskell>main = do
s <- getLine print (s, s)
-- The above is equivalent to:
main = getLine >>= \s -> print (s, s)</lang>
Pattern matching allows for multiple definitions of the same variable, in which case each call uses the first applicable definition.
<lang haskell>funkshun True x = x + 1 funkshun False x = x - 1
foobar = funkshun True 5 + funkshun False 5 -- 6 + 4</lang>
case
expressions let you do pattern-matching on an arbitrary expression, and hence provide yet another way to define a variable.
<lang haskell>funkshun m = case foo m of
[a, b] -> a - b a : b : c : rest -> a + b - c + sum rest a -> sum a</lang>
Guards are as a kind of syntactic sugar for if-else ladders.
<lang haskell>signum x | x > 0 = 1
| x < 0 = -1 | otherwise = 0</lang>
A defintion can be accompanied by a type signature, which can request a less general type than the compiler would've chosen on its own. (Because of the monomorphism restriction, there are also some cases where a type signature can request a more general type than the default.) Type signatures are also useful even when they make no changes, as a kind of documentation.
<lang haskell>dotProduct :: [Int] -> [Int] -> Int dotProduct ns ms = sum $ zipWith (+) ns ms -- Without the type signature, dotProduct would -- have a more general type.
foobar :: Num a => a foobar = 15 -- Without the type signature, the monomorphism -- restriction would cause foobar to have a less -- general type.</lang>
Since Haskell is purely functional, most variables are immutable. It's possible to create mutable variables in an appropriate monad. The exact semantics of such variables largely depend on the monad. For example, STRef
s must be explicitly initialized and passed between scopes, whereas the implicit state of a State
monad is always accessible via the get
function.
HicEst
<lang HicEst>! Strings and arrays must be declared. ! Everything else is 8-byte float, READ/WRITE converts
CHARACTER str="abcdef", str2*345, str3*1E6/"xyz"/ REAL, PARAMETER :: named_constant = 3.1415 REAL :: n=2, cols=4, vec(cols), mtx(n, cols) DATA vec/2,3,4,5/, mtx/1,2,3.1415,4, 5,6,7,8/
named = ALIAS(alpha, beta, gamma) ! gamma == named(3) ALIAS(vec,n, subvec,2) ! share subvec and vec(n...n+1) ALIAS(str,3, substr,n) ! share substr and str(3:3+n-1)
a = EXP(b + c) ! assign/initialze a=1, b=0, c=0 str = "blahblah" ! truncate/expand if needed beta = "blahblah" ! illegal
CALL noArguments_noUSE ! global scope SUBROUTINE CALL Arguments_or_USE(a) ! local scope SUBROUTINE t = func() ! local scope FUNCTION
SUBROUTINE noArguments_noUSE() ! all global
vec2 = $ ! 1,2,3,...
END
SUBROUTINE Arguments_or_USE(var) ! all local
USE : vec ! use global object var = SUM(vec) t = TIME() ! local, static, USEd by func()
END
FUNCTION func() ! all local
USE Arguments_or_USE : t ! use local object func = t
END</lang>
HolyC
Variables must be declared before use. The declaration of a variable, without assigning a value takes the form <typename> <variablename>; <lang holyc>U8 i;</lang>
Some common types are: I8, I64, U8, U64, F64.
It is possible to initialize variables with expressions having known values when they are defined. The syntax follows the form <typename> <variablename> = <initializing expression>; <lang holyc>U8 b1 = 8; U8 b2 = b1 * 10;</lang>
Multiple variables may be defined in a single statement as follows: <lang holyc>U8 uint1, uint2, uint3;</lang>
To initialized a string: <lang holyc>U8 *str = "The HolyC Language";</lang>
Icon and Unicon
Icon/Unicon data types are implemented as type safe self-descriptive values and as such do not require conventional type declarations. See Introduction to Unicon and Icon about declarations
Declarations are confined to scope and use and include local, static, global, procedure parameters, and record definitions. Additionally Unicon has class definitions. Undeclared variables are local by default. <lang Icon>global gvar # a global
procedure main(arglist) # arglist is a parameter of main local a,b,i,x # a, b, i, x are locals withing main static y # a static (silly in main)
x := arglist[1] a := 1.0 i := 10 b := [x,a,i,b]
- ... rest of program
end</lang>
Icon
Unicon
This Icon solution works in Unicon.
J
<lang j>val=. 0</lang>
J has two assignment operators. The =. operator declares, initializes, assigns, etc. a local variable. The =: operator does the same for a "global" variable.
<lang j>fun =: 3 :0
val1 =: 0 val1 =. 2 val2 =. 3 val1, val2
)
fun
2 3
val1
0
val2
|value error</lang>
Note that the language forbids assigning a "global" value in a context where the name has a local definition.
<lang j>fun1 =: 3 :0
val3=. 0 val3=: 0
)
fun1
|domain error</lang>
But the purpose of this rule is to help people catch mistakes. If you have reason to do this, you can easily set up another execution context.
<lang j>fun2 =: 3 :0
val4=. 0 3 :'val4=:y' y
)
fun2 </lang>
Variables are referred to by name, and exist in locales (which may be used as classes, closures or other stateful references).
FIXME (working on good illustrative examples that would make sense to someone used to different languages)
That said, it is possible and not uncommon to write an entire J application without using any variables (J has a functional, "point free" style of coding known as tacit). Names are optional (though often convenient). And, it can be possible to build code using names and then remove them using f.
-- this is somewhat analogous to compiling code though the implementation of f. does not have to compile anything.
Java
Variables in Java are declared before their use with explicit types: <lang java>int a; double b; AClassNameHere c;</lang> Several variables of the same type can be declared together: <lang java>int a, b, c;</lang> Variables can be assigned values on declaration or afterward: <lang java>int a = 5; double b; int c = 5, d = 6, e, f; String x = "test"; String y = x; b = 3.14;</lang> Variables can have scope modifiers, which are explained here.
final
variables can only be assigned once, but if they are Object
s or arrays, they can be modified through methods (for Object
s) or element assignment (for arrays):
<lang java>final String x = "blah";
final String y;
final double[] nums = new double[15];
y = "test";
x = "blahblah"; //not legal
nums[5] = 2.5; //legal
nums = new double[10]; //not legal
final Date now = new java.util.Date();
now.setTime(1234567890); //legal
now = new Date(1234567890); //not legal</lang>
JavaScript
Information lifted from Stack Overflow (credit to krosenvold and triptych)
Javascript uses scope chains to establish the scope for a given function. There is typically one global scope, and each function defined has its own nested scope. Any function defined within another function has a local scope which is linked to the outer function. It's always the position in the source that defines the scope.
An element in the scope chain is basically a Map with a pointer to it's parent scope.
When resolving a variable, javascript starts at the innermost scope and searches outwards.
var a=1;
// global scope function one(){
alert(a);
}
// local scope function two(a){
alert(a);
}
// local scope again function three(){
var a = 3; alert(a);
}
// Intermediate: no such thing as block scope in javascript function four(){
if(true){ var a=4; }
alert(a); // alerts '4', not the global value of '1'
}
// Intermediate: object properties
function Five(){
this.a = 5;
}
// Advanced: closure
var six = function(){
var foo = 6;
return function(){ // javascript "closure" means I have access to foo in here, // because it is defined in the function in which I was defined. alert(foo); }
}()
// Advanced: prototype-based scope resolution
function Seven(){
this.a = 7;
}
// [object].prototype.property loses to [object].property in the scope chain Seven.prototype.a = -1; // won't get reached, because 'a' is set in the constructor above. Seven.prototype.b = 8; // Will get reached, even though 'b' is NOT set in the constructor.
// These will print 1-8 one(); two(2); three(); four(); alert(new Five().a); six(); alert(new Seven().a);
alert(new Seven().b);</lang>Joy
JOY does not have variables. Variables essentially name locations in memory, where values are stored. JOY also uses memory to store values, but has no facility to name these locations. The memory that JOY uses is commonly referred to as "the stack".
Initializing
The JOY stack can be initialized: <lang joy>[] unstack</lang>
Assignment
Values can be pushed on the stack: <lang joy>42</lang> pushes the value 42 of type integer on top of the stack.
Stack
Calling the stack by name pushes a copy of the stack on the stack. To continue the previous example: <lang joy>stack</lang> pushes the list [42] on top of the stack. The stack now contains: [42] 42.
jq
jq variables are strictly speaking not variable: they are just names given to JSON values. For example, the expression "1 as $x | 2 as $x | $x " can be understood as assigning the value 1 to $x and then assigning another value to $x, with the final result being 2, but it must be understood that the second occurrence of $x shadows the first, so that the third occurrence is just a reference to the second. To see this more clearly, consider the following superficially similar expression: <lang jq>jq -n '1 as $x | (2 as $x | $x) | $x'</lang> In this case, the expression as a whole yields 1 (rather than 2 as previously), as the subexpression in parentheses does not cause shadowing of the first $x.
Naming and Assignment
In a jq program, variable names are strings beginning with "$" followed by one or more characters chosen from the set of alphanumeric characters augmented with the "_" (underscore) character. Assignment within a jq program is based on the syntax: <lang jq>EXPRESSION as $NAME</lang> This establishes $NAME as a reference to the value of EXPRESSION. There is no special syntax to constrain the type of a variable.
Global Variables
Global variables can be given values on the jq command line. For example, suppose the following two lines are in a file named test.jq: <lang jq>def test: $x; test</lang> The following invocation: <lang sh>jq --arg x 123 -n -f test.jq</lang> will result in the string "123" being output.
Julia
Certain constructs in the language introduce scope blocks, which are regions of code that are eligible to be the scope of some set of variables. The scope of a variable cannot be an arbitrary set of source lines, but will always line up with one of these blocks. The constructs introducing such blocks are:
function bodies (either syntax) while loops for loops try blocks catch blocks let blocks type blocks. <lang julia>#declaration/assignment, declaration is optional x::Int32 = 1
- datatypes are inferred dynamically, but can also be set thru convert functions and datatype literals
x = 1 #x is inferred as Int, which is Int32 for 32-bit machines, Int64 for 64-bit machines
- variable reference
julia>x 1
x = int8(1) #x is of type Int8 x = 1.0 #x is Float64 x = y = 1 #assign both x and y to 1 global x = 1 #assigns 1 to global variable x (used inside scope blocks) local x = 1 #assigns 1 to local variable x (used inside scope blocks) x = 'a' #x is a 'Char' type, designated by single quotes x = "a" #x is a 1-element string, designated by double quotes</lang> A common use of variables is giving names to specific, unchanging values. Such variables are only assigned once. This intent can be conveyed to the compiler using the const keyword: <lang julia>const e = 2.71828182845904523536 const pi = 3.14159265358979323846</lang>
Kotlin
Local variables in Kotlin (i.e. variables created within a function, constructor or a property getter/setter) must be individually declared and initialized before they are used. They then remain in scope until the end of the block in which they are declared though their lifetime may be extended if they are 'captured' by a closure of some kind.
A variable's type can either be inferred from the type of the initialization expression or can be declared explicitly. There are essentially two types of variables: read-only (declared with 'val') and mutable (declared with 'var').
Variables declared at top-level or class/object scope are technically properties rather than variables and only have hidden backing fields where necessary. However, like local variables, they are either read-only or mutable and (in the case of top level or object properties) can be declared to be compile-time constants using the 'const val' modifier.
Here are some examples of local variables: <lang scala>// version 1.0.6
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
/* read-only variables */ val i = 3 // type inferred to be Int val d = 2.4 // type inferred to be double val sh: Short = 2 // type specified as Short val ch = 'A' // type inferred to be Char val bt: Byte = 1 // type specified as Byte
/* mutable variables */ var s = "Hey" // type inferred to be String var l = 4L // type inferred to be Long var b: Boolean // type specified as Boolean, not initialized immediately var f = 4.4f // type inferred to be Float
b = true // now initialized println("$i, $d, $sh, $ch, $bt, $s, $l, $b, $f") s = "Bye" // OK as mutable l = 5L // OK as mutable b = false // OK as mutable f = 5.6f // OK as mutable
println("$i, $d, $sh, $ch, $bt, $s, $l, $b, $f")
}</lang>
- Output:
3, 2.4, 2, A, 1, Hey, 4, true, 4.4 3, 2.4, 2, A, 1, Bye, 5, false, 5.6
Lambdatalk
<lang Scheme> 1) working in a global scope
{def A 3} -> A // A is in the global scope {def B 4} -> B // B is in the global scopel {def MUL {lambda {:x :y} {* :x :y}}} -> MUL // MUL is a global function {MUL {A} {B}} // using global variables -> 12
2) working in a local scope
{let // open local scope
{ // begin defining and assigning local variables {:a 3} // :a is local {:b 4} // :b is local {:mul {lambda {:x :y} {* :x :y}}} // :mul is a local function } // end defining and assigning local variables {:mul :a :b} // computing with local variables
} // closing local scope -> 12 </lang>
Lasso
<lang Lasso>// declare thread variable, default type null var(x) $x->type // null
// declare local variable, default type null local(x)
- x->type // null
// declare thread variable, initialize with a type, in this case integer var(x = integer)
// declare local variable, initialize with a type, in this case integer local(x = integer)
// assign a value to the thread var x $x = 12
// assign a value to the local var x $x = 177
// a var always has a data type, even if not declared - then it's null // a var can either be assigned a type using the name of the type, or a value that is by itself the type local(y = string) local(y = 'hello')
'\r' // demonstrating asCopyDeep and relationship between variables: local(original) = array('radish', 'carrot', 'cucumber', 'olive') local(originalaswell) = #original local(copy) = #original->asCopyDeep iterate(#original) => {
loop_value->uppercase
}
- original // modified
//array(RADISH, CARROT, CUCUMBER, OLIVE) '\r'
- originalaswell // modified as well as it was not a deep copy
//array(RADISH, CARROT, CUCUMBER, OLIVE) '\r'
- copy // unmodified as it used ascopydeep
//array(RADISH, CARROT, CUCUMBER, OLIVE)</lang>
Liberty BASIC
<lang lb> 'In Liberty BASIC variables are either string or numeric. 'A variable name can start with any letter and it can contain both letters and numerals, as well as dots (for example: user.firstname). 'There is no practical limit to the length of a variable name... up to ~2M characters. 'The variable names are case sensitive.
'assignments: -numeric variables. LB assumes integers unless assigned or calculated otherwise. 'Because of its Smalltalk heritage, LB integers are of arbitrarily long precision. 'They lose this if a calculation yields a non-integer, switching to floating point.
i = 1 r = 3.14
'assignments -string variables. Any string-length, from zero to ~2M.
t$ ="21:12:45" flag$ ="TRUE"
'assignments -1D or 2D arrays 'A default array size of 10 is available. Larger arrays need pre-'DIM'ming.
height( 3) =1.87 dim height( 50) height( 23) =123.5 potential( 3, 5) =4.5 name$( 4) ="John"
'There are no Boolean /bit variables as such.
'Arrays in a main program are global. 'However variables used in the main program code are not visible inside functions and subroutines. 'They can be declared 'global' if such visibility is desired. 'Functions can receive variables by name or by reference. </lang>
Lingo
In Lingo (local) variables are declared by assigning a value: <lang lingo>x = 23 y = "Hello world!" z = TRUE -- same effect as z = 1</lang>
Trying to use a non declared variable causes a (pre)compile-time error. The following script doesn't compile, but throws "Script error: Variable used before assigned a value": <lang lingo>on foo
put x
end</lang>
Lingo's value function can be used to "silently" - i.e. without throwing errors - check if a variable is defined or not in the current scope: <lang lingo>put value("x") -- <Void> -- means: undefined</lang>
But variable declarations/assignments can also explicitely assign the constant VOID. The following script compiles successfully, but value("x") would still return <Void>: <lang lingo>on foo
x = VOID put x
end</lang>
Global variables are declared by adding "global <varName>" either to the top of a script or anywhere - but before first usage - inside a function body. Both of the following scripts are valid and compile: <lang lingo>global x on foo
put x
end</lang> <lang lingo>on foo
global x put x
end</lang>
Global variables can also be declared/created at runtime, by adding them as property to the special _global object: <lang lingo>_global.x = 23</lang>
Any other function/script can then access this dynamically created global variable, either by a having a "global <varName>" statement in its code (see above), or by using this special _global object: <lang lingo>put _global.x</lang>
Logo
Historically, Logo only had global variables, because they were easier to access when stepping through an algorithm. Modern variants have added dynamic scoped local variables.
<lang logo>make "g1 0 name 2 "g2 ; same as make with parameters reversed global "g3 ; no initial value to func :x
make "g4 4 ; still global localmake "L1 6 local ["L2 "L3] ; local variables, collection syntax func2 :g4 print :L2 ; 9, modified by func2 print :L3 ; L3 has no value, was not modified by func2
end to func2 :y
make "g3 :y make "L2 :L1 + 3 ; dynamic scope: can see variables of callers localmake "L3 5 ; locally override L3 from caller (print :y :L1 :L2 :L3) ; 4 6 9 5
end print :g4 ; 4 print :L1 ; L1 has no value print name? "L1 ; false, L1 is not bound in the current scope</lang>
LotusScript
<lang Lotusscript>Sub Click() 'a few declarations as example Dim s as New NotesSession ' declaring a New NotesSession actually returns the current, active NotesSession Dim i as Integer ' i = 0 Dim s as String ' s= "" Dim v as Variant ' v is nothing Dim l as Long ' l = 0 Dim doc as NotesDocument 'doc is EMTPY
'...
End Sub </lang>
Lua
In lua, variables are dynamically typecast, and do not need declaration prior to use.
<lang lua>a = 1 -- Here we declare a numeric variable fruit = "banana" -- Here we declare a string datatype needspeeling = True -- This is a boolean local b = 2 -- This variable declaration is prefixed with a scope modifier </lang>
The lua programming language supports multiple assignments from within a single statement:
<lang lua>A, B, C, D, E = 2, 4, 6, 8, "It's never too late"</lang>
M2000 Interpreter
Each module has own local variables and can create global variables. A local variable shadow any global with same name. A new global with same name shadow a global variable (but its wrong to create a local first with same name, we see local always). We can change global variables, but to assign to a global variable we need to use <=. Arrays defined with DIM and global arrays not use <= for assign values to items.
Variables can exist in Groups as public or private. Also variables can be closures in lambda functions.
We can use Local to make local variables, Let to make variables, Def to make once variables (second time using Def for same variable we get error). We can use Input and Read to make new variables too. We can assign a value to new name, to make a variable.
<lang M2000 Interpreter> \\ M2000 use inference to state the type of a new variable, at run time \\ We can use literals of a numeric type \\ @ for Decimal \\ # for Currency \\ ~ for Single \\ & for Long (32bit) \\ % for Integer (16bit) \\ Double and Boolean have no symboles Module TopA {
Module Alfa { Print A=10000, Type$(A)="Double" \\ A is local, we use = A=10@ Print A=10, Type$(A) \\ Or we can state the type before Def Currency K, Z=500, M K=1000 \\ Currency Currency Currency Print Type$(K), Type$(Z), Type$(M) Def Double K1, K2 as Integer=10, K3=1 \\ double integer double Print Type$(K1), Type$(K2), Type$(K3) Mb=1=1 \\ We get a boolean Print Type$(Mb) Def boolean Mb1=True Print Type$(Mb1) \\ True and False are Double -1 and 0 not Boolean Mb3=True Print Type$(Mb3)="Double" \\ For strings we have to use $ (like in old Basic) A$="This is a String" Global G1 as boolean = True \\ To change a global variable we have to use <= G1<=1=0 \\ If we do this: G1=1=0 we make a local variable, and shadow global \\ In a For Object {} we can make temporary variables For This { Local G1=122.1212 Print G1, Type$(G1)="Double" } Print G1, Type$(G1)="Boolean" } \\ shadow A for this module only A=100 \\ Now we call Alfa Alfa Print (A=100)=True
} Global A=10000 TopA Print A=10000 Module CheckStatic {
\\ clear static variables and variables (for this module) Clear Module K { \\ if no A exist created with value 100@ \\ Static variables can't be referenced Static A=100@ Print A, Type$(A)="Decimal" A++ } For i=1 to 10 : K : Next i Print A=10000
} CheckStatic Print A=10000
\\ reference and use of stack of values C=100& Module ChangeC {
\\ we leave arguments in stack of values Module HereChangeC (&f) { \\ interpreter execute a Read &f f++ } \\ now we call HereChangeC passing current stack of values HereChangeC
} \\ Calling a module done without checking for what parameters a module take ChangeC &C Print C, Type$(C)="Long" K=10010001001@ ChangeC &K Print K, Type$(K)="Decimal" Module TypeRef (&x as Double) {
Print x x++
} D=100 TypeRef &D Try ok {
TypeRef &K
} If Error or Not Ok then Print Error$ ' we get wrong data type </lang>
Maple
Variables are dynamic in Maple, so they do not need to be defined before they are used.
The assignment operator in Maple is := . It is also possible to assign to a variable name using the assign() command. It can also be noted that variables at the top level are global for a given session. <lang maple>a := 1: print ("a is "||a);
"a is 1"</lang>
Variables in a procedure should be declared with the "local" or "global" keyword.
A local variable has a smaller scope and can only be used within the procedure it's declared in. In the following example, b is local to f() and will be 3 within the procedure only. The local variable b does not have a value outside the procedure. <lang maple>b; f := proc()
local b := 3; print("b is "||b);
end proc: f(); print("b is "||b);
b "b is 3" "b is b"</lang>
A global variable has a large scope and can be used anywhere inside a program. A global variable declared outside a procedure can be used within the procedure, and a global variable declared within a procedure can be used outside of it. In the following example, a is a global variable that is from outside the procedure. The global variable c has a value even when used outside the procedure it was declared in. <lang maple>f := proc()
global c; c := 3; print("a is "||a); print("c is "||c);
end proc: f(); print("c is "||c);
"a is 1" "c is 3" "c is 3"</lang>
Variables can be reassigned.
<lang maple>print ("a is "||a);
a := 4:
print ("a is "||a);
"a is 1" "a is 4"</lang>
Variables can be reassigned as different datatypes.
<lang maple>print ("a is "||a);
type(a, integer);
a := "Hello World":
print ("a is "||a);
type(a, integer);
type(a, string);
"a is 4" true "a is Hello World" false true</lang>
Variable names may contain spaces and other characters when you enclose them in ``.
<lang maple>`This is a variable` := 1:
print(`This is a variable`);
1</lang>
To unassign a variable.
<lang maple>print ("a is "||a);
type(a, string);
print("c is "||c);
a := 'a':
print ("a is "||a);
type(a, symbol);
unassign('c');
print("c is "||c);
"a is Hello World" true "c is 3" "a is a" true "c is c"</lang>
Here, symbol is essentially another term for variable name.
Mathematica /Wolfram Language
x=value assign a value to the variable x x=y=value assign a value to both x and y x=. or Clear[x] remove any value assigned to x lhs=rhs (immediate assignment) rhs is evaluated when the assignment is made lhs:=rhs (delayed assignment) rhs is evaluated each time the value of lhs is requested
Atomic Objects
All expressions in Mathematica are ultimately made up from a small number of basic or atomic types of objects. Symbol / String / Integer / Real / Rational / Complex These objects have heads which are symbols that can be thought of as "tagging" their types. The objects contain "raw data", which can usually be accessed only by functions specific to the particular type of object. You can extract the head of the object using Head, but you cannot directly extract any of its other parts.
Symbols are the basic named objects in Mathematica
aaaaa user-defined symbol Aaaaa system-defined symbol $Aaaa global or internal system-defined symbol aaaa$ symbol renamed in a scoping construct aa$nn unique local symbol generated in a module
Contexts
aaaa`x is a symbol with short name x, and context aaaa. Contexts in Mathematica work somewhat like file directories in many operating systems. You can always specify a particular file by giving its complete name, including its directory. But at any given point, there is usually a current working directory, analogous to the current Mathematica context. Files that are in this directory can then be specified just by giving their short names.
Scoping Constructs
With[] evaluate with specified variables replaced by values Module[] localize names of variables (lexical scoping) Block[] localize values of variables (dynamic scoping) DynamicModule[] localize names of variables in dynamic interface constructs Other Forms of Scoping Begin, End localize symbol namespace Throw, Catch localize exceptions Quiet, Check localize messages BlockRandom localize pseudorandom variables
MATLAB / Octave
<lang Matlab> a = 4; % declare variable and initialize double value,
s = 'abc'; % string i8 = int8(5); % signed byte u8 = uint8(5); % unsigned byte i16 = int16(5); % signed 2 byte u16 = uint16(5); % unsigned 2 byte integer i32 = int32(5); % signed 4 byte integer u32 = uint32(5);% unsigned 4 byte integers i64 = int64(5); % signed 8 byte integer u64 = uint64(5);% unsigned 8 byte integer
f32 = float32(5); % single precision floating point number f64 = float64(5); % double precision floating point number , float 64 is the default data type.
c = 4+5i; % complex number
colvec = [1;2;4]; % column vector crowvec = [1,2,4]; % row vector m = [1,2,3;4,5,6]; % matrix with size 2x3</lang>
Variables within functions have local scope, except when they are declared as global
<lang Matlab> global b </lang>
Mercury
Variables are normally implicitly instantiated into their natural scope, if not referred to in the head of the rule (as in Name
below) and can only be bound once. This feels very similar to Erlang, where variables are function-scoped and single-assignment, without declaration. However, Mercury will reorder code to satisfy data dependencies, so assignments can appear to be out of order:
<lang Mercury>:- func name = string. name = Name :-
Name = Title ++ " " ++ Given, Title = "Dr.", Given = "Bob".</lang>
Mercury also has state variables, actually pairs of variables, usually instantiated in the head of a rule.
<lang Mercury>:- pred greet(string::in, io::di, io::uo) is det. greet(Who, !IO) :-
io.write_string("Hello", !IO), io.format(", %s!\n", [s(Who)], !IO).</lang>
In this example !IO
is the state variable, and this code translates to
<lang Mercury>:- pred greet(string::in, io::di, io::uo) is det. greet(Who, !.IO, !:IO) :-
io.write_string("Hello", !.IO, !:IO), io.format(", %s!\n", [s(Who)], !.IO, !:IO).</lang>
which translates roughly to:
<lang Mercury>:- pred greet(string::in, io::di, io::uo) is det. greet(Who, IO0, IO) :-
io.write_string("Hello", IO0, IO1), io.format(", %s!\n", [s(Who)], IO1, IO).</lang>
!.IO
is the bound 'current value' of IO, !:IO
is the free 'next value' of IO, and the lexical appearance of these variables matters to their final translation to the normal variables in the third example, where data dependency enforces the intended order of operation (so that "Hello" is always written before the name.)
When state variables are instantiated within a rule, they need explicit instantiation, which you could think of as like a declaration without initialization. The state variable in the following example is existentially quantified, and is used for a temporary string builder:
<lang Mercury>:- func dr(string) = string. dr(Name) = Titled :-
some [!SB] ( !:SB = string.builder.init, put_char(handle, 'D', !SB), put_char(handle, 'r', !SB), format(handle, " %s", [s(Name)], !SB), Titled = to_string(!.SB) ).</lang>
Existential vs. universal quantification comes up again to let you make local use of nondeterministic code, as in the following use of a nondeterministic list.member/2.
<lang Mercury> % all_under(N, L)
% True if every member of L is less than N %
- - pred all_under(int::in, list(int)::in) is semidet.
all_under(Limit, L) :-
all [N] (member(N, L) => N < Limit).</lang>
In pure Mercury code that only uses functional data types, and only normal functions in higher-order code, variables can be said to be either 'free' or 'ground' where they're found in code, before the goal they're in changes their instantiation (for example to bind a free variable to a value, making it ground). The only exception are the 'state of the world' values used for I/O, which have 'unique' and 'dead' instantiations.
But as soon as you have higher-order predicates or non-functional data types (and this happens very easily even in rookie code, for example if you use the getopt module to handle command line arguments), then instantiations get more complex. For non-functional data types like arrays this might just mean using some special modes in your rules, but here's an extreme example:
<lang Mercury>:- type accumulator == (pred(int, int, io, io)).
- - inst accumulator == (pred(in, out, di, uo) is det).
- - func accumulator >> accumulator = accumulator.
- - mode in(accumulator) >> in(accumulator) = out(accumulator).
A >> B = C :-
C = (pred(!.N::in, !:N::out, !.IO::di, !:IO::uo) is det :- A(!N, !IO), B(!N, !IO)).
- - pred add(int::in, int::in, int::out, io::di, io::uo) is det.
add(N, !Acc, !IO) :-
io.format("adding %d to accumulator (current value: %d)\n", [i(N), i(!.Acc)], !IO), !:Acc = !.Acc + N.
- - pred example2(io::di, io::uo) is det.
example2(!IO) :-
F = add(5) >> add(5) >> add(-10), F(0, X, !IO), io.print_line(X, !IO).</lang>
- Output:
adding 5 to accumulator (current value: 0) adding 5 to accumulator (current value: 5) adding -10 to accumulator (current value: 10) 0
In that last example all of the insts and modes are just there to make the higher-order code work, so this system might seem like only a chore. It helps though in permitting efficient code with uniqueness, and it lets Mercury not always pay the costs of its logical facilities (there's underlying machinery required for a nondet call, which might be backtracked through, which isn't required in a det call). The variable instantiation system can also be used to provide static guarantees similar to those offered by dependently typed languages; an example of this is the non_empty_list instantiation used by the solutions module. This is getting really advanced, but here's a simple example of instantiation (ab)use:
<lang Mercury>:- module evenodd.
- - interface.
- - import_module io.
- - pred main(io::di, io::uo) is det.
- - implementation.
- - import_module list, string.
- - type coin
---> heads ; tails.
- - inst heads for coin/0
---> heads.
- - inst tails for coin/0
---> tails.
main(!IO) :-
(if heads(heads, N) then print_heads(N, !IO) else true).
- - pred print_heads(coin::in(heads), io::di, io::uo) is det.
print_heads(_, !IO) :-
io.write_string("heads\n", !IO).
- - pred print_tails(coin::in(tails), io::di, io::uo) is det.
print_tails(_, !IO) :-
io.write_string("tails\n", !IO).
- - pragma foreign_export_enum("C", coin/0, [prefix("COIN_"), uppercase]).
- - pred heads(coin::in, coin::out(heads)) is semidet.
- - pragma foreign_proc("C",
heads(N::in, M::out(heads)), [promise_pure, will_not_call_mercury],
"
M = N; SUCCESS_INDICATOR = N == COIN_HEADS;
"). </lang>
Here, print_heads
and print_tails
take, by type, a coin, which could be either heads or tails, but this code has used the variable instantiation system to insist that they can each only accept one particular value. If you take this code and change the main/2 so that it instead tries to call print_tails(N, !IO)
, you'll get a compile-time error. A practical use of this is to avoid having to handle impossible (but well-typed) cases.
MIPS Assembly
Depending on your assembler, variables are either declared in a .data
section, or you can use .equ
or .definelabel
directives to name a specific memory offset. The CPU doesn't (and can't) know the variable's size at runtime, so you'll have to maintain that by using the instructions that operate at the desired length.
<lang mips>foo equ 0x100 bar equ foo+1
- it's heavily implied that "foo" is one byte, otherwise, why would you label this? But you should always comment your variables.</lang>
Initialization is done by setting the variable equal to a value. For variables that live entirely in a register, this is very simple: <lang mips>li $t0,5 ;load the register $t0 with the value 5.</lang>
For memory, this is a bit harder. <lang mips>.definelabel USER_RAM,0xA0000000 foo equ 0x100 ;represents an offset from USER_RAM. Indexed offsetting can only be done at compile time in MIPS.
la $t0,USER_RAM nop ;load delay slot ($t0 might not be ready by the time the load occurs) lbu $t1,foo($t0) ;load the unsigned byte from memory address 0xA0000100</lang>
Variables have no scope, and there is no enforcement of data types. There's nothing stopping you from loading a 32-bit word from an offset that was intended to store a byte. Do so at your own risk.
Modula-3
<lang modula3>MODULE Foo EXPORTS Main;
IMPORT IO, Fmt;
VAR foo: INTEGER := 5; (* foo is global (to the module). *)
PROCEDURE Foo() =
VAR bar: INTEGER := 10; (* bar is local to the procedure Foo. *) BEGIN IO.Put("foo + bar = " & Fmt.Int(foo + bar) & "\n"); END Foo;
BEGIN
Foo();
END Foo.</lang>
For procedures, the formal parameters create local variables unless the actual parameter is prefixed by VAR: <lang modula3>PROCEDURE Foo(n: INTEGER) =</lang> Here, n will be local to the procedure Foo, but if we instead wrote: <lang modula3>PROCEDURE Foo(VAR n: INTEGER) =</lang> Then n is the global variable n (if it exists).
Nanoquery
<lang nanoquery>// variable definition and initialization/assignment // // variables are initialized when they are defined a = 1 b = 2 c = null
// datatypes // // variables may contain any datatype, and this can be // changed at any time by assigning a new value. they may // also contain native java types var = "a string" var = 123 var = new(Nanoquery.Util.Random) var = new(java.lang.Object)
// scope // // all classes, functions, and control blocks have their // own scope x = 5 for i in range(1, 2)
// we can reference 'x' within this loop without issue println x
// we can also define variables that have this loop as their // scope y = 5
end // trying to reference the variable 'y' outside of its scope would result // in a null reference exception println y //%null reference exception: variable object 'y' has not been defined // at <global>:33
// referencing
//
// as already demonstrated, variables are referenced by using their
// name
part1 = "this is "
part2 = "a test sentence"
println part1 + part2
// other facilities // // variables may be marked for garbage collection in their current // scope using the 'delete' command test_var = "pretend this is a really large object we want to free up" delete test_var</lang>
Nim
1) Declaration
Nim variables are declared with the keyword var
for mutable variables and let
for immutable variables. The declaration may be done at the module level (global variables) or in procedures, iterators, methods. At module level, when the name of a variable is followed by an asterisk (*
) the variable is considered as exported and will be visible in other modules which import the declaration module.
It is possible to declare several variables in the same declaration statement.
2) Initialization
All variables are implicitly initialized to binary zero (which includes data allocated on the heap as strings and sequences). An initialization value may, of course, be specified.
When declaring a variable, the type must be specified, except if the variable is initialized as the type is determined from the initialization value. Immutable variables must be initialized at their declaration point.
If there is more than one variable initialized in the declaration statement, the expression is evaluated several times (this is important if the initialization expression contains a call to a procedure causing side-effects).
3) Assignment
Variables are assigned using the statement variable = expression
. For structured objects, assigning causes generally a copy. There exists some mechanisms to avoid the copy, but they should be used with care.
4) References and pointers
Nim allows to declare references and pointers, for instance var p: ref int
. Such variables are implicitly initialized to binary zero which is the value nil
. For references, the allocation of data is done with the procedure new
or implicitly in some cases. For pointers, there are several procedures similar to C allocation functions, for instance alloc
or alloc0
.
4) Scope
Global variables may be accessed from anywhere provided they are visible. To make a variable from another module visible, the module must be imported or, at least, the variable form the module must be imported. To access the field of an object, these fields must have been exported (using an asterisk as for exportation of a variable).
In a procedure “p”, local variables are visible from procedures declared inside “p”. However, Nim may prevent some operations on variables from an outside scope if they could result in a violation of the memory integrity.
5) Referencing
Variables may be referenced by their name or by their qualified name. The qualified name is the name preceded by the module name and a dot, for instance m.x
.
Data managed via a reference or a pointer “p” may be accessed using the notation p[]
. If the accessed data is an object containing some field “a” the short notation p.a
may be used instead of the full notation p[].a
.
6) Examples
<lang nim>var x: int = 3 # Declaration with type specification and initialization.
var y = 3 # Declaration with type inferred to "int".
var z: int # Variable is initialized to 0.
let a = 13 # Immutable variable.
- Using a var block to initialize.
var
b, c: int = 10 # Two variables initialized to 10 s* = "foobar" # This one is exported.
type Obj = ref object
i: int s: string
var obj = Obj(i: 3, s: "abc") # Initialization with an implicit allocation by "new". echo obj.a, " ", obj.s # Equivalent to obj[].a and obj[].s.
proc p =
var xloc = 3 echo x # Referencing a global variable.
proc q = echo xloc # Referencing a variable in the enclosing scope.</lang>
Objeck
Different ways to declare and initialize an integer. <lang objeck> a : Int; b : Int := 13; c := 7; </lang>
OCaml
The default handlers for values in OCaml are not variables strictly speaking, because as OCaml is a functional language these values can't vary (so are not variable). Strictly speaking these are bindings. An identifier is bound to a value in an immutable way.
The standard way to bind an identifier to a value is the let construct: <lang ocaml>let x = 28</lang>
This stated, ocaml programmers most often use the word variable when they refer to bindings, because in the programming world we usually use this word for the default values handlers.
Now to add confusion, real variables also exist in OCaml because it is an impure functional language. They are called references and are defined this way: <lang ocaml>let y = ref 28</lang> References can then be accessed and modified this way: <lang ocaml> !y (* access *)
y := 34 (* modification *)</lang>
An identifier can not be declared uninitialised, it is always defined with an initial value, and this initial value is used by the OCaml type inference to infer the type of the binding.
Inside an expression, bindings are defined with the let .. in construct, and we can also define multiple bindings with the let .. and .. in construct (here the expression can be the definition of a new identifier or the definition of a function): <lang ocaml>let sum = (* sum is bound to 181 *)
let a = 31 and b = 150 in (a + b)
let sum () = (* sum is a function which returns 181 *)
let a = 31 and b = 150 in (a + b)</lang>
Oforth
Oforth does not have :
- Global variables.
- Class attributes.
Apart from the data stack that is global to a task, a function or method cannot modify something global.
Variables are local to functions or methods that declare them. They are a list of names between two pipes, declared at the beginning of a body. They are always initialized with null value.
Using a variable just push its value on the data stack. Using -> removes the top of the stack and assign this value to the variable
<lang Oforth>import: date
- testVariable
| a b c |
Date now ->a a println ;</lang>
ooRexx
While REXX (and ooRexx) normally pass arguments by value. ooRexx has a mechanism to pass compound variables by reference. <lang>a.=4711 Say 'before sub a.3='a.3 Call sub a. Say ' after sub a.3='a.3 Exit sub: Procedure use Arg a. a.3=3 Return</lang>
- Output:
before sub a.3=4711 after sub a.3=3
Ol
Ol is a purely functional Lisp, so there are no variables in common sense in Ol. We use 'symbol' and 'linked value' instead.
<lang scheme>
- Declare the symbol 'var1' and associate number 123 with it.
(define var1 123) (print var1)
- ==> 123
- Reassociate number 321 with var1.
(define var1 321) (print var1)
- Create function that prints value of var1 ...
(define (show)
(print var1))
- ... and eassociate number 42 with var1.
(define var1 42)
(print var1)
- ==> 42
- var1 prints as 42, but...
(show)
- ==> 321
- ... function 'show' still print old associated value
</lang>
Other possible ways to declare a symbol and link value with it: let, let*, letrec, letrec*, define a function. ... tbd...
Openscad
<lang openscad> mynumber=5+4; // This gives a value of nine </lang>
OxygenBasic
<lang> 'WAYS OF DECLARING VARIABLES 'AND ASSIGNING VALUES var int a,b,c,d int a=1,b=2,c=3,d=4 dim int a=1,b=2, c=3, d=4 dim as int a=1,b=2, c=3, d=4 dim a=1,b=2, c=3, d=4 as int print c '3
'CREATING ARRAY VARIABLES int array[100] dim int a={10,20,30,40} 'implicit array print a[3] '30
'COMMONLY USED TYPES: 'byte word int sys float char string
'LIMITING SCOPE dim int a=10 scope
dim int a=100 dim int b=1000 print a '100
end scope print a 'prior a: 10 print b 'error b is out of scope
'REFERENCING VARIABLES dim int*p 'p is a pointer variable dim int a={2,4,6,8} @p=@a[3] 'address of p is assigned address of a[3] print @p 'the address print p '6 print p[1] '6 print p[2] '8 </lang>
Oz
Variable names in Oz always start with an uppercase letter.
Oz variables are dataflow variables. A dataflow variable can basically be free (unbound) or determined (has a value). Once a value has been assigned, it can not be changed. If we assign the same value again, nothing happens. If we assign a different value to an already determined variable, an exception is raised: <lang oz>declare Var %% new variable Var, initially free {Show Var} Var = 42 %% now Var has the value 42 {Show Var} Var = 42 %% the same value is assigned again: ok Var = 43 %% a different value is assigned: exception</lang>
In the Emacs-based interactive environment, declare
creates a new open scope in which variables can be declared. The variables are visible for the entire rest of the session.
Most operations on free variables block until the variables have been bound (but not Show
as used above).
Assignment to dataflow variables is also called unification. It is actually a symmetric operation, e.g. the following binds B to 3: <lang oz>declare
A = 3 B
in
A = B {Show B}</lang>
However, variables can only be introduced at the left side of the =
operator. So this is a syntax error:
<lang oz>declare
A = 3 A = B %% Error: variable B not introduced
in
{Show B}</lang>
It is possible to introduce multiple variables in a single statement: <lang oz>declare
[A B C D] = [1 2 3 4] %% unification of two lists</lang>
In a module definition, toplevel variables can be introduced between the keywords define
and end
without the need for declare
. The range between these two keywords is also their scope. Toplevel variables can optionally be exported.
<lang oz>functor
export Function
define
ToplevelVariable = 42
fun {Function} 42 end
end</lang>
Function and class definitions introduce a new variable with the name of the function/class and assign the new function/class to this variable.
Most Oz statement introduce a new scope and it is possible to introduce local variables at the top of this scope with the in
keyword.
<lang oz>fun {Function Arg}
LocalVar1
in
LocalVar1 = if Arg == 42 then
LocalVar2 in LocalVar2 = yes LocalVar2 else LocalVar3 = no %% variables can be initialized when declared in LocalVar3 end
LocalVar1
end</lang>
Here, LocalVar1
is visible in the whole body of Function
while LocalVar2
is only visible in the then
branch and LocalVar3
is only visible in the else
branch.
Additionally, new local variables can be introduced everywhere using the keyword local
.
<lang oz>if {IsEven 42} then
{System.showInfo "Here, LocalVar is not visible."} local LocalVar = "Here, LocalVar IS visible" in {System.showInfo LocalVar} end
end</lang>
New variables are also introduced in pattern matching.
<lang oz>case "Rosetta code" of First|_ then {Show First} end %% prints "R"</lang>
_
creates a new nameless variable that is initially unbound. It is usually pronounced "don't care".
It is possible to create a read-only view of a variable with the !!
operator. This is called a "future". We can wait for such a variable to become bound by another thread and we can read its value, but we can never set it.
<lang oz>declare
A B = !!A %% B is a read-only view of A
in
thread B = 43 %% this blocks until A is known; then it fails because 43 \= 42 end A = 42</lang>
Additional operations on variables: <lang oz>declare
V = 42
in
{Wait V} %% explicitly wait for V to become determined
if {IsDet V} then %% check whether V is determined; not recommended {Show determined} elseif {IsFree V} then %% check whether V is free; not recommended {Show free} end</lang>
IsFree
and IsDet
are low-level functions. If you use them, you code is no longer declarative and prone to race conditions when used in a multi-threaded context.
To have mutable references like in imperative languages, use cells: <lang oz>declare
A = {NewCell 42} OldVal
in
{Show @A} %% read a cell with @ A := 43 %% change its value OldVal = A := 44 %% read and write at the same time (atomically)</lang>
A
is an immutable dataflow variable that is bound to a mutable reference.
PARI/GP
There are two types of local variables, local
(mostly deprecated) and my
. Variables can be used without declaration or initialization; if not previously used such a variable is a pure variable: technically, a monomial in a variable with name equal to the variable name. This behavior can be forced with the apostrophe operator: regardless of the value (if any) currently stored in x
,
<lang parigp>'x</lang>
displays as (and is treated internally as) x
. This is useful when you want to use it as a variable instead of a number (or other type of object). For example,
<lang parigp>'x^3+7</lang>
is a cubic polynomial, not the number 8, even if x is currently 1.
Pascal
See Delphi
Perl
In perl, variables are global by default and can be manipulated from anywhere in the program. Variables can be used without first being declared, providing that the strict pragmatic directive is not in effect:
<lang perl>sub dofruit {
$fruit='apple';
}
dofruit; print "The fruit is $fruit";</lang>
Variables can be declared prior to use and may be prefixed with scope modifiers our
, my
, or local
see scope modifiers for the differences. Variables which haven't been assigned to have the undefined value by default. The undefined value acts just like 0
(if used as a number) or the empty string (if used as a string), except it can be distinguished from either of these with the defined
function. If warnings are enabled, perl will print a message like "Use of uninitialized value $foo in addition (+)" whenever you use the undefined value as a number or string.
Initialization and assignment are the same thing in Perl: just use the =
operator. Note that the rvalue's context (scalar or list) is determined based on the lvalue.
<lang perl>my $x = @a; # Scalar assignment; $x is set to the
# number of elements in @a.
my ($x) = @a; # List assignment; $x is set to the first
# element of @a.
my @b = @a; # List assignment; @b becomes the same length
# as @a and each element becomes the same.
my ($x, $y, @b) = @a; # List assignment; $x and $y get the first
# two elements of @a, and @b the rest.
my ($x, $y, @b, @c, $z) = @a; # Same thing, and also @c becomes empty
# and $z undefined.</lang>
The kind of value a variable can hold depends on its sigil, "sigil" being a slang term for "funny character in front of a variable name". $dollarsigns
can hold scalars: the undefined value, numbers, strings, or references. @atsigns
can hold arrays of scalars, and %percentsigns
can hold hashes of scalars (associative arrays mapping strings to scalars); nested data structures are constructed by making arrays or hashes of references to arrays or hashes.
There are two other sigils, but they behave quite unlike the others. A token of the form &foo
refers to a subroutine named foo
. In older versions of Perl, ampersands were necessary for calling user-defined subroutines, but since they no longer are, they have only a handful of obscure uses, like making references to named subroutines. Note that you can't assign to an ampersand-marked name. But you can assign to a typeglob, a kind of object represented with the notation *var
. A typeglob *foo
represents the symbol-table entry for all of the otherwise independent variables $foo
, @foo
, %foo
, and &foo
. Assigning a string "bar"
to *foo
makes these variables aliases for $bar
, @bar
, %bar
, and &bar
respectively. Alternatively, you can assign a reference to a typeglob, which creates an alias only for the variable of the appropriate type. In particular, you can say *twiddle = sub {...}
to change the definition of the subroutine &twiddle
without affecting $twiddle
and friends.
The strict pragmatic directive
If the strict pragmatic directive is in effect, then variables need explicit scope declaration, so should be prefixed with a my or our keyword depending on the required level of scope:
<lang perl>use strict; our $fruit; # declare a variable as global our $veg = "carrot"; # declare a global variable and define its value</lang>
Local and global variables
The following example shows the use of local and global variables:
<lang perl>$fruit="apple"; # this will be global by default
sub dofruit {
print "My global fruit was $fruit,"; # use the global variable my $fruit="banana"; # declare a new local variable print "and the local fruit is $fruit.\n";
}
dofruit; print "The global fruit is still $fruit";</lang>
Phix
Phix has just five builtin data types:
<-------- object ---------> | | +-atom +-sequence | | +-integer +-string
- An object can hold any Phix data, specifically either an atom or a sequence.
- An atom can hold a single floating point numeric value, or an integer.
- An integer can hold a single whole number (at least +/- 1,000,000,000).
- A sequence can hold a collection of values, nested to any depth, or a string
- A string can hold a series of characters, or raw binary data.
Unlike traditional statically typed languages, you do not have to remember dozens of possibly complex data types, and unlike a dynamically typed language you get proper
compile-time error messages for simple typos. Phix also allows user defined types, for extra validation and debugging purposes, rather than being fundamentally different to the above.
Strings are mutable and the lengths of sequences and strings are only limited by available memory. The sequence is the real powerhouse of Phix, and can be used for lists, tables, trees, etc.
Identifiers may be of any length and are case sensitive. They must start with a letter and then be followed by letters, digits or underscores.
Variables must be declared before use, may be assigned on declaration, and can utilise multiple assignment/sequence decomposition, eg:
integer x = 25, y = 25, z object {a, b, c} = {{}, 5, "string"}
In the latter statement, c is set to "string", b is set to 5, and a is set to {}. (In multiple assignment, values are assigned right-to-left to avoid having to reorder any subscripts.) You could also use the @= ("all equal") operator to assign a, b and c to the same (entire) thing. Attempts to reference a variable before it has been assigned a value trigger a run-time error, except for object(id) which yields false in that case. Constants are really just variables which must be assigned on declaration and for which subsequent assignment is prohibited.
Variables are by default local and restricted to the current file, routine, or block level. Static file-level variables may also be declared as global to make them visible to other source files. There are no static routine scoped variables, only file-level. Scope resolution is intended to be simple and intuitive, see the link below (Core Language/Declarations/Scope) for more details.
User defined types are declared with a single-parameter function that returns true or false, eg:
type hour(integer x) return x >= 0 and x <= 23 end type hour h1, h2 h1 = 10 -- ok h2 = 25 -- error! program aborts with a message
Phix has no notion of unsigned numeric types, except via user defined types such as the above which explicitly prevent their use.
You could theoretically write an entire application declaring all variables and parameters as type object, except that it would probably not catch errors the way you might expect it to.
An online copy of the manual can be found at http://phix.x10.mx/docs/html/phix.htm
PHP
<lang PHP><?php /**
* @author Elad Yosifon */
/*
* PHP is a weak typed language, * no separation between variable declaration, initialization and assignment. * * variable type is defined by the value that is assigned to it. * a variable name must start with a "$" sign (called "sigil", not a dollar sign). * variable naming rules: * + case-sensitive. * + first character after $ must not be a number. * + after the first character all alphanumeric chars and _(underscore) sign is allowed, e.g. $i_am_a_new_var_with_the_number_0 * */
- NULL typed variable
$null = NULL; var_dump($null); // output: null
- defining a boolean
$boolean = true; var_dump($boolean); // output: boolean true $boolean = false; var_dump($boolean); // output: boolean false
/*
* casting is made using (TYPE) as a prefix */
- bool and boolean is the same
$boolean = (bool)1; var_dump($boolean); // output: boolean true $boolean = (boolean)1; var_dump($boolean); // output: boolean true
$boolean = (bool)0; var_dump($boolean); // output: boolean false $boolean = (boolean)0; var_dump($boolean); // output: boolean false
- defining an integer
$int = 0; var_dump($int); // output: int 0
- defining a float,
$float = 0.01; var_dump($float); // output: float 0.01
- which is also identical to "real" and "double"
var_dump((double)$float); // output: float 0.01 var_dump((real)$float); // output: float 0.01
- casting back to int (auto flooring the value)
var_dump((int)$float); // output: int 0 var_dump((int)($float+1)); // output: int 1 var_dump((int)($float+1.9)); // output: int 1
- defining a string
$string = 'string'; var_dump($string); // output: string 'string' (length=6)
- referencing a variable (there are no pointers in PHP).
$another_string = &$string; var_dump($another_string); // output: string 'string' (length=6)
$string = "I'm the same string!"; var_dump($another_string); // output: string 'I'm the same string!' (length=20)
- "deleting" a variable from memory
unset($another_string);
$string = 'string'; /*
* a string can also be defined with double-quotes, HEREDOC and NOWDOC operators. * content inside double-quotes is being parsed before assignment. * concatenation operator is .= */
$parsed_string = "This is a $string"; var_dump($parsed_string); // output: string 'This is a string' (length=16) $parsed_string .= " with another {$string}"; var_dump($parsed_string); // output: string 'This is a string with another string' (length=36)
- with string parsing
$heredoc = <<<HEREDOC This is the content of \$string: {$string} HEREDOC; var_dump($heredoc); // output: string 'This is the content of $string: string' (length=38)
- without string parsing (notice the single quotes surrounding NOWDOC)
$nowdoc = <<<'NOWDOC' This is the content of \$string: {$string} NOWDOC; var_dump($nowdoc); // output: string 'This is the content of \$string: {$string}' (length=42)
- as of PHP5, defining an object typed stdClass => standard class
$stdObject = new stdClass(); var_dump($stdObject); // output: object(stdClass)[1]
- defining an object typed Foo
class Foo {} $foo = new Foo(); var_dump($foo); // output: object(Foo)[2]
- defining an empty array
$array = array(); var_dump($array); // output: array {empty}
/*
* an array with non-integer key is also considered as an associative array(i.e. hash table) * can contain mixed variable types, can contain integer based keys and non-integer keys */
$assoc = array( 0 => $int, 'integer' => $int, 1 => $float, 'float' => $float, 2 => $string, 'string' => $string, 3 => NULL, // <=== key 3 is NULL 3, // <=== this is a value, not a key (key is 4) 5 => $stdObject, 'Foo' => $foo, ); var_dump($assoc);
// output: // ======= // array // 0 => int 0 // 'integer' => int 0 // 1 => float 0.01 // 'float' => float 0.01 // 2 => string 'string' (length=6) // 'string' => string 'string' (length=6) // 3 => null // 4 => int 3 // 5 => // object(stdClass)[1] // 'Foo' => // object(Foo)[2]
/*
* all variables are "global" but not reachable inside functions(unless specifically "globalized" inside) */
function a_function() { # not reachable var_dump(isset($foo)); // output: boolean false
global $foo; # "global" (reachable) inside a_function()'s scope var_dump(isset($foo)); // output: boolean true }
a_function();
/**
* there is another special type of variable called (Resource). * for more info regarding Resources: * @url http://php.net/manual/en/language.types.resource.php * @url http://php.net/manual/en/resource.php */
</lang>
PicoLisp
You can control the local bindings of symbols with functions like 'use' or 'let': <lang PicoLisp>(use (A B C)
(setq A 1 B 2 C 3) ... )</lang>
This is equivalent to <lang PicoLisp>(let (A 1 B 2 C 3)
... )</lang>
The parentheses can be omitted if there is only a single variable <lang PicoLisp>(use A
(setq A ..) ... )
(let A 1
...)</lang>
Other functions that handle local bindings are 'let?', 'bind', 'job', 'with' or 'for'.
PL/I
<lang pli>/* The PROCEDURE block and BEGIN block are used to delimit scopes. */
declare i float; /* external, global variable, excluded from the */
/* local area (BEGIN block) below. */
begin;
declare (i, j) fixed binary; /* local variable */ get list (i, j); put list (i,j);
end;
/* Examples of initialization. */
declare p fixed initial (25); declare q(7) fixed initial (9, 3, 5, 1, 2, 8, 15);
/* sets all elements of array Q at run time, on block entry. */
declare r(7) fixed initial (9, 3, 5, 1, 2, 8, 15);
/* sets all elements of array R at compile time. */
p = 44; /* run-time assignment. */ q = 0; /* run-time initialization of all elements of Q to zero. */ q = r; /* run-time assignment of all elements of array R to */
/* corresponding elemets of S. */</lang>
Pony
<lang Pony>var counter: I32 = 10 // mutable variable 'counter' with value 10 let temp: F64 = 36.6 // immutable variable 'temp' let str: String // immutable variable 'str' with no initial value str = "i am a string" // variables must be initialized before use let another_str = "i am another string" // type of variable 'another_str' infered from assigned value
let b = true let b' = false // variable names can contain ' to make a distinct variable with almost the same name</lang>
Destructive read <lang Pony>var x: I32 = 10 var y: I32 = x = 20 try
Fact(x == 20) // x gets the new value of 20 Fact(y == 10) // y gets the old value of x which is 10
end</lang>
PowerShell
Variables in PowerShell start with a $ character, they are created on assignment and thus don't need to be declared: <lang powershell>$s = "abc" $i = 123</lang> Uninitialized variables expand to nothing. This may be interpreted for example as an empty string or 0, depending on context: <lang powershell>4 + $foo # yields 4 "abc" + $foo + "def" # yields "abcdef"</lang> Variables all show up in the Variable: drive and can be queried from there with the usual facilities: <lang powershell>Get-ChildItem Variable:</lang> Since Variables are provided via a flat filesystem, they can be manipulated using the common cmdlets for doing so. For example to delete a variable one can use <lang powershell>Remove-Item Variable:foo</lang> as if it were a file or a registry key. There are, however, several cmdlets dealing specifically with variables: <lang powershell>Get-Variable # retrieves the value of a variable New-Variable # creates a new variable Set-Variable # sets the value of a variable Clear-Variable # deletes the value of a variable, but not the variable itself Remove-Variable # deletes a variable completely</lang>
Prolog
Variables in imperative languages are, in essence, named memory locations where items of data can be stored. Prolog, as a declarative language, has no variables in this sense, and therefore has no way of declaring them or assigning to them. Prolog variables are more like variables in formal logic or in mathematics. Here is a very simple Prolog program: <lang prolog>mortal(X) :- man(X). man(socrates).</lang> The symbol :- may be read as 'when' or 'if', so that the first line is equivalent to the statement in predicate logic ∀x: px → qx where px is interpreted as 'x is a man' and qx is interpreted as 'x is mortal'. Prolog notation, however, requires variable names to start with (or consist of) a capital letter: this is how the interpreter knows that socrates is not a variable.
We can of course use more than one variable: <lang prolog>student(X,Y) :- taught(Y,X). taught(socrates,plato).</lang> When we put queries to the Prolog system, it will seek to find a consistent set of interpretations that allows our query to be true in the light of the facts and rules we have provided: <lang prolog>?- mortal(socrates). yes ?- student(X,socrates). X=plato ?- student(socrates,X). no</lang> And so forth. We can reuse the same variable names in different statements as much as we like, but within each statement the same variable must be capable of referring to the same term. <lang prolog>?- mortal(zeus). no</lang> Prolog does not answer like that because it is a connoisseur of the mythology; and in any case several ancient writers report that Zeus's tomb could be seen on Crete. But the rule states that X is mortal if X—the same x—is a man, so it could only unify successfully if zeus and socrates were the same (which even his most devoted admirers did not claim). If our original rule had said <lang prolog>mortal(X) :- man(Y).</lang> then the two variables would be able to refer to two different terms, and the Prolog interpreter would agree that mortal(zeus).
PureBasic
<lang PureBasic>; Variables are initialized when they appear in sourcecode with default value of 0 and type int Debug a
- or value "" for a string, they are not case sensitive
Debug b$
- This initializes a double precision float, if type is following the dot
Debug c.d
- They can be initialized with define (double precision float, string, integer)
Define d.d = 3.5, e$ = "Test", f.i = a + 2
- Define can have a default type (all bytes except j which is long)
Define.b g, h, j.l
- Define without following variables sets default type. In this case to single precision float
Define.f
- So this will be an single precision float and no integer
Debug k
- EnableExplicit forces declaration of used variables with define
EnableExplicit
- Will throw an error because L isn't initialized
Debug L DisableExplicit
- Global Variables are available in Procedures and Threads too
Global M = 3, N = 2 Procedure Dummy(parameter1, parameter2 = 20)
; Parameter contain values which where used when calling the function, ; their types have to be specified in the above Procedure header. ; The last ones can have default values which get applied if this parameter is not given.
; Variables in Procedures are separate from those outside, ; so d can be initialized again with another type ; which would otherwise lead to an error d.i ; Protected makes a variable local even if another one with same name is declared as global (see above) Protected M = 2 ; Shares a variable with main program like it was declared by global Shared a ; prevents a variable to be initialized with default value again when procedure is called a second time, ; could be used for example as a counter, which contains the number of times a function was called Static a ; N here also would have a value of 2, while for example ; f would, when named, initialize a new variable, and so have a value of 0
EndProcedure
- finally there are constants which are prefixed by an #
- Test = 1
- Their value cannot be changed while program is running
- String_Constant = "blubb"
- In constrast to variables, a constant has no types except an (optional) $ sign to mark it as string constant
- Float_Constant = 2.3
- Maps, LinkedLists , Arrays and Structures are not handled here, because they are no elemental variables</lang>
Python
Names in Python are not typed, although all the objects referred to by them, are. Names are lexically scoped by function/method/class definitions, and must be defined before use.
Names in global statements are looked up in the outermost context of the program or module. Names in a nonlocal statement are looked up in the order of closest enclosing scope outwards.
<lang python>
- these examples, respectively, refer to integer, float, boolean, and string objects
example1 = 3 example2 = 3.0 example3 = True example4 = "hello"
- example1 now refers to a string object.
example1 = "goodbye" </lang>
Quackery
Quackery does not have variables.
It is a stack based language, and data items (numbers, names, and nests — i.e. bigints, executable tokens, and dynamic arrays of numbers, names and nests) reside on the Quackery data stack ("the stack") during program execution.
Additional data stacks, referred to as ancillary stacks, provide the functionality of global and scoped variables. There are several predefined ancillary stacks, for example base
, which stores the current base for numerical i/o, and temp
, which is available for use as a local variable. A new named ancillary stack can be defined thus:
[ stack ] is mystack
The following Quackery shell dialogue demonstrates the use of several words relating to ancillary stacks. (ancillary-stack-name copy echo
allows us to see the contents of an ancillary stack.)
Welcome to Quackery. Enter "leave" to leave the shell. /O> [ stack ] is A ... [ stack ] is B ... A copy echo cr ... 42 A put ... ' words A put ... ' [ 23 [ over swap ] 801 ] A put ... A copy echo cr ... A take echo cr ... A take echo cr ... A copy echo cr ... [ stack ] [ stack 42 words [ 23 [ over swap ] 801 ] ] [ 23 [ over swap ] 801 ] words [ stack 42 ] Stack empty. /O> A share echo cr ... A copy echo cr ... 42 [ stack 42 ] Stack empty. /O> 23 A replace ... A copy echo ... [ stack 23 ] Stack empty. /O> -1 A tally ... A copy echo ... [ stack 22 ] Stack empty. /O> A B move ... A copy echo cr ... B copy echo cr ... B release ... B copy echo ... [ stack ] [ stack 22 ] [ stack ] Stack empty.
R
Variables are dynamically typed, so they do not need to be declared and instantiated separately. <- and = are both used as the assignment operator, though <- is preferred, for compatibility with S-Plus code. <lang R>foo <- 3.4 bar = "abc"</lang> It is possible to assign multiple variables with the same value, and to assign values from left to right. <lang R>baz <- quux <- 1:10 TRUE -> quuux</lang> There are also global assignment operators, <<- and ->>. From their help page:
The operators '<<-' and '->>' cause a search to made through the environment for an existing definition of the variable being assigned. If such a variable is found (and its binding is not locked) then its value is redefined, otherwise assignment takes place in the global environment.
In practice, this usually means that variables are assigned in the user workspace (global environment) rather than a function. <lang R>a <- 3
assignmentdemo <- function() {
message("assign 'a' locally, i.e. within the scope of the function") a <- 5 message(paste("inside assignmentdemo, a = ", a)) message(paste("in the global environment, a = ", get("a", envir=globalenv()))) message("assign 'a' globally") a <<- 7 message(paste("inside assignmentdemo, a = ", a)) message(paste("in the global environment, a = ", get("a", envir=globalenv())))
} assignmentdemo()</lang>
assign 'a' locally, i.e. within the scope of the function inside assignmentdemo, a = 5 in the global environment, a = 3 assign 'a' globally inside assignmentdemo, a = 5 in the global environment, a = 7
Finally, there is also the assign function, where you choose the environment to assign the variable. <lang R>assign("b", TRUE) #equivalent to b <- TRUE assign("c", runif(10), envir=globalenv()) #equivalent to c <<- runif(10)</lang>
Racket
<lang Racket>
- lang racket
- define a variable and initialize it
(define foo 0)
- increment it
(set! foo (add1 foo))
- Racket is lexically scoped, which makes local variables work
(define (bar)
(define foo 100) (set! foo (add1 foo)) foo)
(bar) ; -> 101
- and it also makes it possible to have variables with a global value
- that are accessible only in a specific local lexical scope
(define baz
(let () ; used to create a new scope (define foo 0) (define (bar) (set! foo (add1 foo)) foo) bar)) ; this is the value that gets bound to `baz'
(list (baz) (baz) (baz)) ; -> '(1 2 3)
- define a new type, and initialize a variable with an instance
(struct pos (x y)) (define p (pos 1 2)) (list (pos-x p) (pos-y p)) ; -> '(1 2)
- for a mutable reference, a struct (or some specific fields in a
- struct) can be declared mutable
(struct mpos (x y) #:mutable) (define mp (mpos 1 2)) (set-mpos-x! mp 11) (set-mpos-y! mp 22) (list (mpos-x mp) (mpos-y mp)) ; -> '(11 22)
- but for just a mutable value, we have boxes as a builtin type
(define b (box 10)) (set-box! b (add1 (unbox b))) (unbox b) ; -> 11
- (Racket has many more related features
- static typing in typed
- racket, structs that are extensions of other structs,
- pattern-matching on structs, classes, and much more)
</lang>
Raku
(formerly Perl 6) Much of what is true for Perl 5 is also true for Raku. Some exceptions:
There are no typeglobs in Raku.
Assigning an array to a scalar variable now makes that scalar variable a reference to the array:
<lang perl6> my @y = <A B C D>; # Array of strings 'A', 'B', 'C', and 'D' say @y[2]; # the @-sigil requires the container to implement the role Positional @y[1,2] = 'x','y'; # that's where subscripts and many other things come from say @y; # OUTPUT«[A x y D]» # we start to count at 0 btw.
my $x = @y; # $x is now a reference for the array @y
say $x[1]; # prints 'x' followed by a newline character
my Int $with-type-check; # type checks are enforced by the compiler
my Int:D $defined-i = 10; # definedness can also be asked for and default values are required in that case
my Int:D $after-midnight where * > 24 = 25; # SQL is fun and so is Raku
my \bad = 'good'; # if you don't like sigils say bad; # you don't have to use them say "this is quite bad"; # but then string interpolation say "this is quite {bad}" # becomes more wordy </lang>
Laziness is a big topic in Raku. Sometimes Raku programmers are so lazy, they can't even be bothered with giving variables names.
<lang perl6>say ++$; # this is an anonymous state variable say ++$; # this is a different anonymous state variable, prefix:<++> forces it into numerical context and defaults it to 0 say $+=2 for 1..10; # here we do something useful with another anonymous variable
sub foo { $^a * $^b } # for positional arguments we often can't be bothered to declare them or to give them fancy names say foo 3, 4;</lang>
- Output:
1 1 2 4 6 12
(Includes code modified from http://design.raku.org/S02.html#Built-In_Data_Types. See this reference for more details.)
Rascal
The effect of a variable declaration is to introduce a new variable Name and to assign the value of expression Exp to Name. A variable declaration has the form <lang rascal> Type Name = Exp;</lang> A mention of Name later on in the same scope will be replaced by this value, provided that Name’s value has not been changed by an intermediate assignment. When a variable is declared, it has as scope the nearest enclosing block, or the module when declared at the module level.
There are two rules you have to take into account. Double declarations in the same scope are not allowed. Additionally, the type of Exp should be compatible with Type, i.e., it should be a subtype of Type.
As a convenience, also declarations without an initialization expression are permitted inside functions (but not at the module level) and have the form <lang rascal>Type Name;</lang> and only introduce the variable Name.
Rascal provides local type inference, which allows the implicit declaration of variables that are used locally in functions. There are four rules that apply when doing so. (1) An implicitly declared variable is declared at the level of the current scope, this may the whole function body or a block nested in it. (2) An implicitly declared variable gets as type the type of the first value that is assignment to it. (3) If a variable is implicitly declared in different execution path of a function, all these implicit declarations should result in the same type. (4) All uses of an implicitly declared variable must be compatible with its implicit type.
Examples
Two explicit variable declarations: <lang rascal>rascal>int max = 100; int: 100 rascal>min = 0; int: 0</lang>
An implicit variable declaration <lang rascal>rascal>day = {<"mon", 1>, <"tue", 2>, <"wed",3>, >>>>>>> <"thu", 4>, <"fri", 5>, <"sat",6>, <"sun",7>}; rel[str, int]: {
<"thu",4>, <"mon",1>, <"sat",6>, <"wed",3>, <"tue",2>, <"fri",5>, <"sun",7>
}</lang>
Variable declaration and assignment leading to type error <lang rascal>rascal>int month = 12; int: 12 rascal>month ="December"; |stdin:///|(7,10,<1,7>,<1,17>): Expected int, but got str</lang>
Pitfalls Local type inference for variables always uses the smallest possibe scope for a variable; this implies that a variable introduced in an inner scope is not available outside that scope. Here is how things can go wrong: <lang rascal>rascal>if( 4 > 3){ x = "abc"; } else { x = "def";} str: "abc" rascal>x; |stdin:///|(0,1,<1,0>,<1,1>): Undeclared variable, function or constructor: x</lang>
REXX
assignments via =
REXX has only one type of variable: a (character) string.
There is no need to declare anything (variables, entry points, subroutines, functions, etc) (indeed, there isn't any way to declare anything at all).
All unassigned REXX variables have a default value of the variable name (in uppercase).
There isn't any way to initialize a variable except to assign it a value (by one of the methods below), however,
there is a way to "initialize" a (stemmed) array in REXX with a default value) ── see the 6th section below,
default value for an array.
To assign some data (value) to a variable, one method is to use the assignment operator, an equal sign (=): <lang rexx>aa = 10 /*assigns chars 10 ───► AA */ bb = /*assigns a null value ───► BB */ cc = 2*10 /*assigns chars 20 ───► CC */ dd = 'Adam' /*assigns chars Adam ───► DD */ ee = "Adam" /*same as above ───► EE */ ff = 10. /*assigns chars 10. ───► FF */ gg = '10.' /*same as above ───► GG */ hh = "+10" /*assigns chars +10 ───► hh */ ii = 1e1 /*assigns chars 1e1 ───► ii */ jj = +.1e+2 /*assigns chars .1e+2 ───► jj */</lang> Variables aa, ff, gg, hh, ii, and jj will all be considered numerically equal in REXX (but not exactly equal except for ff and gg).
assignments via PARSE
<lang rexx>kk = '123'x /*assigns hex 00000123 ───► KK */ kk = 'dead beaf'X /*assigns hex deadbeaf ───► KK */ ll = '0000 0010'b /*assigns blank ───► LL (ASCII) */ mm = '0000 0100'B /*assigns blank ───► MM (EBCDIC)*/
xxx = '11 2. 333 -5' parse var xxx nn oo pp qq rr
/*assigns 11 ───► NN */ /*assigns 2. ───► OO */ /*assigns 333 ───► PP */ /*assigns ─5 ───► QQ */ /*assigns "null" ───► RR */
/*a "null" is a string of length zero (0), */ /*and is not to be confused with a null char.*/
cat = 'A cat is a lion in a jungle of small bushes.'
/*assigns a literal ───► CAT */</lang>
assignments via VALUE
Assignments can be made via the value BIF [Built-In Function] (which also has other capabilities), the
capability used here is to create a variable name programmatically (normally using concatenation or abuttal).
<lang rexx>call value 'CAT', "When the cat's away, the mice will play."
/*assigns a literal ───► CAT */
yyy='CA' call value yyy'T', "Honest as the Cat when the meat's out of reach."
/*assigns a literal ───► CAT */
yyy = 'CA' call value yyy || 'T', "Honest as the Cat when the meat's out of reach."
/*assigns a literal ───► CAT */</lang>
unassigned variables
There are methods to catch unassigned variables in REXX. <lang REXX>/*REXX pgm to do a "bad" assignment (with an unassigned REXX variable).*/
signal on noValue /*usually, placed at pgm start. */
xxx=aaaaa /*tries to assign aaaaa ───► xxx */
say xxx 'or somesuch' exit
noValue: /*this can be dressed up better. */
badLine =sigl /*REXX line number that failed. */
badSource=sourceline(badLine) /*REXX source line ··· */
badVar =condition('D') /*REXX var name that's ¬ defined.*/
say
say '*** error! ***'
say 'undefined variable' badvar "at REXX line number" badLine
say
say badSource
say
exit 13</lang>
Note: the value (result) of the condition BIF can vary in different implementations of a REXX interpreter.
output using Regina (various versions), PC/REXX, Personal REXX, and ooRexx.
*** error! *** undefined variable AAAAA at REXX line number 5 xxx=aaaaa /*tries to assign aaaaa ───► xxx */
output using R4 REXX:
Error 46 : Invalid variable reference (NOVALUE) Information: Variable aaaaa does not have an assigned value Error occurred in statement# 5 Statement source: xxx= aaaaa Statement context: D:\variabl4.rex, procedure: variabl4
scope of variables
REXX subroutines/functions/routines/procedures can have their own "local" variables if the procedure statement is used.
Variables can be shared with the main program if the variables are named on the procedure statement with the expose keyword.
<lang rexx>/*REXX pgm shows different scopes of a variable: "global" and "local".*/
q = 55 ; say ' 1st q=' q /*assign a value ───► "main" Q.*/
call sub ; say ' 2nd q=' q /*call a procedure subroutine. */
call gyro ; say ' 3rd q=' q /*call a procedure with EXPOSE. */
call sand ; say ' 4th q=' q /*call a subroutine or function. */
exit /*stick a fork in it, we're done.*/
/*──────────────────────────────────SUB subroutine──────────────────────*/
sub: procedure /*use PROCEDURE to use local vars*/
q = -777 ; say ' sub q=' q /*assign a value ───► "local" Q. */
return
/*──────────────────────────────────GYRO subroutine─────────────────────*/
gyro: procedure expose q /*use EXPOSE to use global var Q.*/
q = "yuppers" ; say 'gyro q=' q /*assign a value ───► "exposed" Q*/
return
/*──────────────────────────────────SAND subroutine─────────────────────*/
sand: /*all REXX variables are exposed.*/
q = "Monty" ; say 'sand q=' q /*assign a value ───► "global" Q*/
return</lang>
output
1st q= 55 sub q= -777 2nd q= 55 gyro q= yuppers 3rd q= yuppers sand q= Monty 4th q= Monty
Programming note: there is also a method in REXX to expose a list of variables.
default value for an array
There is a way in REXX to assign a default value (or an initial value, if you will) to a (stemmed) array. <lang rexx>aaa. = '───────nope.' /*assign this string as a default*/ aaa.1=1 /*assign 1 to first element.*/ aaa.4=4. /* " 4 " fourth " */ aaa.7='lucky' /* " 7 " seventh " */
do j=0 to 8 /*go through a bunch of elements.*/ say 'aaa.'||j '=' aaa.j /*display element # and its value*/ end /*we could've started J at -100.*/</lang>
dropping a variable
In REXX, dropping a variable (this can be thought of as deallocating it or setting the value back to its "default").
Note that the storage used by the variable's (old) value is not truly deallocated, but its storage is returned to the
pool of storage available for allocation of other REXX variables (and their values). This action isn't mandatory
for the REXX language (or for that matter, not even specified), but it's apparently what all (Classic) REXX
interpreters do at the the time of this writing.
<lang rexx>radius=6.28 /*assign a value to a variable. */
say 'radius =' radius
drop radius /*now, "undefine" the variable. */
say 'radius =' radius</lang>
Note: The value of an undefined (or deallocated) REXX variable is the uppercased name of the REXX variable name.
output
radius = 6.28 radius = RADIUS
compound variables
In additions to the (simple) variables described above, REXX defines compound variables that consist of a stem (symbol.) followed by a list of period-separated simple variables and constants The compound variable's tail is computed by concatenating the variables' values (which can be any string) with the constants and the intervening periods. <lang rexx>var.='something' /* sets all possible compound variables of stem var. */ x='3 ' var.x.x.4='something else' Do i=1 To 5
a=left(i,2) Say i var.a.a.4 "(tail is '"a||'.'||a||'.'||'4'"')" End</lang>
Output:
1 something (tail is '1 .1 .4') 2 something (tail is '2 .2 .4') 3 something else (tail is '3 .3 .4') 4 something (tail is '4 .4 .4') 5 something (tail is '5 .5 .4')
Ring
To create a new variable, you just need to determine the variable name & value. The value will determine the variable type and you can change the value to switch between the types using the same variable name.
Syntax: <lang ring> <Variable Name> = <Value> </lang>
The operator ‘=’ is used here as an Assignment operator and the same operator can be used in conditions, but for testing equality of expressions.
The Variable will contains the real value (not a reference). This means that once you change the variable value, the old value will be removed from memory (even if the variable contains a list or object).
Ring is a dynamic programming language that uses Dynamic Typing.
<lang ring> x = "Hello" # x is a string see x + nl x = 5 # x is a number (int) see x + nl x = 1.2 # x is a number (double) see x + nl x = [1,2,3,4] # x is a list see x # print list items x = date() # x is a string contains date see x + nl x = time() # x is a string contains time see x + nl x = true # x is a number (logical value = 1) see x + nl x = false # x is a number (logical value = 0) see x + nl </lang>
We can use the assignment operator ‘=’ to copy variables. We can do that to copy values like strings & numbers. Also, we can copy complete lists & objects. The assignment operator will do a complete duplication for us. This operation called Deep Copy
<lang ring> list = [1,2,3,"four","five"] list2 = list list = [] See list # print the first list - no items to print See "********" + nl See list2 # print the second list - contains 5 items </lang>
Ring is a weakly typed language, this means that the language can automatically convert between data types (like string & numbers) when that conversion make sense.
Rules:
<lang ring> <NUMBER> + <STRING> --> <NUMBER> <STRING> + <NUMBER> --> <STRING> </lang>
The same operator ‘+’ can be used as an arithmetic operator or for string concatenation.
<lang ring> x = 10 # x is a number y = "20" # y is a string sum = x + y # sum is a number (y will be converted to a number) Msg = "Sum = " + sum # Msg is a string (sum will be converted to a string) see Msg + nl </lang>
Ruby
Information taken from Variables page at the Ruby User's Guide
Ruby has three kinds of variables, one kind of constant and exactly two pseudo-variables. The variables and the constants have no type. While untyped variables have some drawbacks, they have many more advantages and fit well with ruby's quick and easy philosophy.
Variables must be declared in most languages in order to specify their type, modifiability (i.e., whether they are constants), and scope; since type is not an issue, and the rest is evident from the variable name as you are about to see, we do not need variable declarations in ruby.
The first character of an identifier categorizes it at a glance:
$ global variable @ instance variable [a-z] or _ local variable [A-Z] constant The only exceptions to the above are ruby's pseudo-variables:
self
, which always refers to the currently executing object, andnil
, which is the meaningless value assigned to uninitialized variables. Both are named as if they are local variables, butself
is a global variable maintained by the interpreter, andnil
is really a constant. As these are the only two exceptions, they don't confuse things too much.
Referencing an undefined global or instance variable returns nil
. Referencing an undefined local variable throws a NameError
exception.
<lang ruby>$a_global_var = 5 class Demo
@@a_class_var = 6 A_CONSTANT = 8 def initialize @an_instance_var = 7 end def incr(a_local_var) @an_instance_var += a_local_var end
end</lang>
Scala
Variables in Scala can have three different scopes depending on the place where they are being used. They can exist as fields, as method parameters and as local variables. Below are the details about each type of scope:
- Fields are variables that belong to an object. The fields are accessible from inside every method in the object. Fields can also be accessible outside the object depending on what access modifiers the field is declared with. Object fields can be both mutable or immutable types and can be defined using respectively var or val.
- Method parameters are variables, which are used to pass the value inside a method when the method is called. Method parameters are only accessible from inside the method but the objects passed in may be accessible from the outside, if you have a reference to the object from outside the method. Method parameters are always immutable and defined by val keyword. In algebraic datatypes (Scala's case classes), -think records- the parameters looks like method parameters. In this case they are fields.
- Local variables are variables declared inside a method. Local variables are only accessible from inside the method, but the objects you create may escape the method if you return them from the method. Local variables can be both mutable or immutable types and can be defined using respectively var or val.
Seed7
Seed7 variables must be defined with type and initialization value, before they are used. There are global variables and variables declared local to a function. <lang seed7>$ include "seed7_05.s7i";
var integer: foo is 5; # foo is global
const proc: aFunc is func
local var integer: bar is 10; # bar is local to aFunc begin writeln("foo + bar = " <& foo + bar); end func;
const proc: main is func
begin aFunc; end func;</lang>
Set lang
There is no declared intialization of variables, or datatypes. Set already initializes 52 variables, named a-z with a value of 0 (ASCII for Null) each, and A-Z with ASCII values corresponding to their characters (65-90). There is also a question mark variable, which represents the number of the current line of code being executed. <lang set_lang>set a 0 > Useless intialization - All lowercase variables have an initial value of 0 set b 66 > Simple variable assignment - b is now the ASCII value of 66, or the character 'B' [c=0] set c 5 > Conditional variable assignment - If c is 0, then set c to 5 set ? 6 > A "goto" command; Setting the ? variable defines the line of code to be executed next set z 1 > This line of code will never be executed, because the previous skipped it set c 10 > Line #5 skipped to here set d A > Assigning a variable to another variable - d is now ASCII 65, or the character 'A' set b ! > The ! deals with I/O. Setting a variable to it receives an input character and assigns it to the variable set ! a > Setting the exclamation point to a variable outputs that variable set e (d+1) > Combiners are defined inside round brackets - () - and have an addition and a subtraction function set f (e-1) > Variable e was assigned to d + 1 (65 + 1 = 66, character B), and f was assigned to e - 1 (66 - 1 = 65, character A) </lang>
smart BASIC
Data Types
There are two variable data types in smart BASIC; numeric and string.
Numeric variables can contain real and complex numbers. <lang qbasic>x = 14 y = 0.4E3 z = 3-2i</lang>
String variables use the dollar symbol ($) at the end. <lang qbasic>t$ = "Name"</lang>
String values may include the quotation symbol " by specifying double quotes "". <lang qbasic>n$ = """This is a quoted text"""</lang>
Initialization
Variable names are NOT case sensitive.
Variable names may not begin with a number.
Variables are initialized when assigned as either numeric or strings. However, smart BASIC in unique in that it will automatically interpret a numeric value from a string if utilized in that manner. <lang qbasic>n = 4 a$ = "6 feet" PRINT n * a$</lang>
- Output:
24
Declaration
Variables do not require declaration in smart BASIC.
Only variable arrays need to be declared by size if the array is over 10 elements.
Arrays are DIM-ensioned by default with a size of 10. Larger arrays must be pre-DIM-entioned. <lang qbasic>DIM name$(100)</lang>
Assignment
The command LET used in standard BASIC may be omitted.
LET x = 1 may be shortened to just x = 1.
Precision
Numeric variable precision is limited to 64-bit representation with 1 bit for sign, 11 bits for power, and 52 bits for mantissa. Any integer greater than 2^52 (4,503,599,627,370,496) will be approximated.
Scope
All variables are local in smart BASIC. Variables within the main program are localized from variables within defined functions as well as other defined functions. However, variables may be accessed outside of their localized areas by preceding the variable with the function name and a period. By extension, the main program scope is null, therefore non-function variables may be accessed within functions with a period before the variable and a null scope (for example: .x). <lang qbasic>DEF MyFunction(x) MyF2 = x^2 MyF3 = x^3 MyFunction = MyF2 + MyF3 END DEF</lang>
To access the variables within the function: <lang qbasic>x = MyFunction(3) PRINT x; MyFunction.MyF2; MyFunction.MyF3</lang>
Variables may also be made global using the DEF command: <lang qbasic>DEF num=123</lang>
SNOBOL4
Local variables in Snobol are declared in a function definition prototype string:
<lang SNOBOL4> define('foo(x,y)a,b,c') :(foo_end) foo a = 1; b = 2; c = 3
foo = a * ( x * x ) + b * y + c :(return)
foo_end</lang>
This defines a function foo( ) taking two arguments x,y and three localized variables a,b,c. Both the argument parameters and vars are dynamically scoped to the function body, and visible to any called functions within that scope. The function name also behaves as a local variable, and may be assigned to as the return value of the function. Any variable initialization or assignment is done explicitly within the function body. Unassigned variables have a null string value, which behaves as zero in numeric context.
Snobol does not support static or lexical scoping, or module level namespaces. Any variables not defined in a prototype are global to the program.
SPL
Variable declaration. In SPL variables do not need and do not have declaration.
Initialization. In SPL variables are autodeclared according to their usage. For example, this one-line program is valid because it is evident what is expected:
<lang spl>a += 1</lang>
In contrast, this one-line program raises an error because it is not evident what object "a" is:
<lang spl>a = a+1</lang>
Assignment. <lang spl>a = 1 b,c,d = 0</lang>
Datatypes. In SPL an object can be: number, text, stack, array, group, function.
Scope. There is a main program body scope and individual function scopes. Variable from any scope can be accessed from any other scope by specifying the desired scope and variable name like "scope.variable". Variable from main program body scope can be accessed from any other scope like ".variable", because main program body scope is an empty space.
Referencing. An object can become a reference to another object using "~" symbol, for example:
<lang spl>r = ~a a = 3
- .output(r)
r = 5
- .output(a)</lang>
- Output:
3 5
SSEM
A variable is simply a storage address that the programmer chooses to treat as a variable. It requires no special allocation, declaration, etc., and an initial value can be loaded into it just as with any other storage address. Naturally, there is no concept of scope: any variable can be accessed and modified from any part of the program. To assign a fresh value to a variable, first form the desired number in the accumulator and then use a 110 c to <address> instruction to store it.
Note that accessing a value from a variable requires several operations, because the 010 -<address> to c instruction (corresponding to load) negates the value in the process of loading it into the accumulator. The negation must thus be written back into storage and another 010 used to load the negation of that, which is the value we want. Depending on the algorithm, it will be found convenient either to overwrite the variable itself with its negation or to use a separate address as a scratch variable (thus preserving the original).
SuperCollider
Variables are always local to the scope of a closure or an object. <lang SuperCollider> // variable declaration var table, chair;
// assignment var table = 10, chair = -10;
// multiple assignment to the same value table = chair = 0;
// multiple assignment to an array ( var table, chair;
- table, chair = [10, -10];
- table ... chair = [10, -10, 2, 3]; // with ellipsis: now chair is [-10, 2, 3]
)
// the letters a-z are predeclared in the interpreter for interactive programming a = 10; x = a - 8;
// variables are type-neutral and mutable: reassign to different objects a = 10; a = [1, 2, 3]; a = nil;
// immutable variables (only in class definitions) const z = 42;
// lexical scope // the closures g and h refer to different values of their c ( f = { var c = 0; { c = c + 1 } }; g = f.value; h = f.value; c = 100; // this doesn't change it. )
// dynamic scope: environments f = { ~table = ~table + 1 }; Environment.use { ~table = 100; f.value }; // 101. Environment.use { ~table = -1; f.value }; // 0.
// there is a default environment ~table = 7; f.value;
// lexical scope in environments: ( Environment.use { ~table = 100; f = { ~table = ~table + 1 }.inEnvir; }; ) f.value; // 101.
// because objects keep reference to other objects, references are not needed: // objects can take the role of variables. But there is a Ref object, that just holds a value
a = Ref([1, 2, 3]); // a reference to an array, can also be written as a quote `[1, 2, 3]; f = { |x| x.value = x.value.squared }; // a function that operates on a ref f.(a); // `[ 1, 4, 9 ]
// proxy objects serve as delegators in environments. This can be called line by line: ProxySpace.push; ~z // returns a NodeProxy ~z.play; // play a silent sound ~z = ~x + ~y; // make it the sum of two silent sounds ~x = { PinkNoise.ar(0.1) }; // … which now are noise, ~y = { SinOsc.ar(440, 0, 0.1) }; // and a sine tone
</lang>
Swift
<lang Swift>import Foundation
// All variables declared outside of a struct/class/etc are global
// Swift is a typed language // Swift can infer the type of variables var str = "Hello, playground" // String let letStr:String = "This is a constant"
// However, all variables must be initialized // Intialize variable of type String to nil var str1:String! // str1 is nil
// Assign value to str1 str1 = "foo bar" // str1 is foo bar
// Swift also has optional types // Declare optional with type of String var optionalString = Optional<String>("foo bar") // (Some "foo bar")
println(optionalString) // Optional("foo bar")
// Optionals can also be declared with the shorthand ? var optionalString1:String? = "foo bar"
// ! can be used to force unwrap but will throw a runtime error if trying to unwrap a nil value println(optionalString1!)
optionalString1 = nil // Is now nil // println(optionalString1!) would now throw a runtime error
// Optional chaining can be used to gracefully fail if there is a nil value if let value = optionalString1?.lowercaseString {
// Is never executed
} else {
println("optionalString1 is nil")
}
// Swift also has type aliasing typealias MyNewType = String // MyNewType is an alias of String var myNewTypeString = MyNewType("foo bar")
// Swift also has special types Any and AnyObject // Any can hold any type // AnyObject can hold any object type let myAnyObjectString:AnyObject = "foo bar"
// Downcast myAnyObjectString to String if let myString = myAnyObjectString as? String {
println(myString) // foo bar
} else {
println("myString is not a string")
}
// Swift treats functions as first-class // Declare a variable with a type of a function that takes no args // and returns Void var myFunc:(() -> Void) func showScopes() {
// Variable is scoped to function let myFunctionVariable = "foo bar function" // Nested functions inherit variables declared in enclosing scope func nestFunc() { println(myFunctionVariable) } nestFunc()
}
myFunc = showScopes // myFunc is now showScopes myFunc() // foo bar function</lang>
Tcl
Tcl's variables are local to procedures, lambdas and methods by default, and there is no initialization per se: only assignment when the variable previously did not exist.
Demonstrating: <lang tcl>namespace eval foo {
# Define a procedure with two formal arguments; they are local variables proc bar {callerVarName argumentVar} { ### Associate some non-local variables with the procedure global globalVar; # Variable in global namespace variable namespaceVar; # Variable in local (::foo) namespace # Access to variable in caller's context; may be local or global upvar 1 callerVarName callerVar
### Reading a variable uses the same syntax in all cases puts "caller's var has $callerVar" # But global and namespace vars can be accessed by using qualified names puts "global var has $globalVar which is $::globalVar"
### Writing a variable has no special syntax ### but [set] is by far the most common command for writing set namespaceVar $globalVar incr globalVar
### Destroying a variable is done like this unset argumentVar }
}</lang> The main thing to note about Tcl is that the "$" syntax is a language level operator for reading a variable and not just general syntax for referring to a variable.
TI-83 BASIC
Variables will remain global, even after the program is complete. Global variables persist until deleted (or reset or power loss, unless they are archived).
Variables may be assigned with the →
to a value.
<lang ti83b>
- 1→A
</lang>
TI-89 BASIC
A variable not declared local (to a program or function) is global. Global variables are grouped into folders of which one is current at any given time. Global variables persist until deleted (or reset or power loss, unless they are archived).
<lang ti89b>Local mynum, myfunc</lang>
Variables may be assigned with the →
or Define
statements, both of which assign a new value to a variable. →
is typically used interactively, but only Define
can assign programs or multi-statement functions.
<lang ti89b>Define mynum = 1 © Two ways to assign a number 1 → mynum
Define myfunc(x) = (sin(x))^2 © Two ways to assign a function (sin(x))^2 → myfunc(x)
Define myfunc(x) = Func © Multi-statement function
If x < 0 Then Return –x Else Return x EndIf
EndFunc</lang>
TUSCRIPT
<lang tuscript> $$ MODE TUSCRIPT,{} var1=1, var2="b" PRINT "var1=",var1 PRINT "var2=",var2
basket=* DATA apples DATA bananas DATA cherry
LOOP n,letter="a'b'c",fruit=basket var=CONCAT (letter,n) SET @var=VALUE(fruit) PRINT var,"=",@var ENDLOOP </lang> Output:
var1=1 var2=b a1=apples b2=bananas c3=cherry
TXR
Variables have a form of pervasive dynamic scope in TXR. Each statement ("directive") of the query inherits the binding environment of the previous, invoking, or surrounding directive, as the case may be. The initial contents of the binding environment may be initialized on the interpreter's command line. The environment isn't simply a global dictionary. Each directive which modifies the environment creates a new version of the environment. When a subquery fails and TXR backtracks to some earlier directive, the original binding environment of that directive is restored, and the binding environment versions generated by backtracked portions of the query turn to garbage.
Simple example: the cases
<lang txr>@(cases)
hey @a
how are you
@(or)
hey @b
long time no see
@(end)</lang>
This directive has two clauses, matching two possible input cases, which have a common first line. The semantics of cases is short-circuiting: the first successful clause causes it to succeed and stop processing subsequent clauses. Suppose that the input matches the second clause. This means that the first clause will also match the first line, thereby establishing a binding for the variable a
. However, the first clause fails to match on the second line, which means that it fails. The interpreter then moves to the second clause, which is tried at the original input position, under the original binding environment which is devoid of the a
variable. Whichever clause of the cases
is successful will pass both its environment modifications and input position increment to the next element of the query.
Under some other constructs, environments may be merged:
<lang txr>@(maybe) @a bar @(or) foo @b @(end)</lang>
The maybe
directive matches multiple clauses such that it succeeds no matter what, even if none of the clauses succeed. Clauses which fail have no effect, but the effects of all successful clauses are merged. This means that if the input which faces the above maybe
is the line "foo bar"
, the first clause will match and bind a
to foo, and the second clause will also match and bind b
to bar. The interpreter integrates these results together and the environment which emerges has both bindings.
uBasic/4tH
uBasic/4tH has two kinds of variables, 26 predefined global integer variables (named A to Z) and a maximum of 26 parameters/local integer variables (named A@ to Z@). The latter aren't defined, but merely allocated, using LOCAL(n) or PARAM(n). The first allocated local variable is assigned A@, the second B@, etc. Both parameters and local variables are freed after RETURN. Parameters are always passed by value. <lang>' Initialization A = 15 ' global variable
Proc _Initialize(24)
_Initialize Param (1)
Local (1) ' A@ now holds 24 B@ = 23 ' local variable
Return
' Assignment A = 15 ' global variable
Proc _Assign(24)
_Assign Param (1)
Local (1) ' A@ now holds 24 A@ = 5 ' reassignment of parameter A@ B@ = 23 ' local variable
Return</lang>
UNIX Shell
<lang sh>
- !/bin/sh
- The unix shell uses typeless variables
apples=6
- pears=5+4 # Some shells cannot perform addition this way
pears = `expr 5+4` # We use the external expr to perform the calculation myfavourite="raspberries" </lang>
Ursa
<lang ursa># variable declaration
- declare [type] [name]
- -or-
- decl [type] [name]
decl int test
- initialization / assignment
- the set statement can be used to init variables and
- assign values to them
set test 10
- datatypes
- ursa currently has 10 built-in types, but
- more may be added in the future.
- boolean
- double
- file
- function
- int
- iodevice
- port
- serverport
- string
- task
- also, java classes may be used as data types
- cygnus/x ursa
- scope
- there is a global variable space, and functions
- have their own scope. control statements (for,
- if, try, while) don't have their own scope yet,
- but this will be implemented in the near future
- referencing
- variables are referenced by their name
decl port p out p endl console</lang>
VBA
Data types
Data type | Runtime type | Category | Storage allocation | Value range |
---|---|---|---|---|
Boolean | Boolean | 1 byte | True or False | |
Integer | Int16 | signed integer | 2 bytes | -32768 through 32767 |
Long | Int32 | signed long integer | 4 bytes | -2,1E+9 through 2,1E+9
|
Byte | UInt8 | unsigned byte | 1 byte | 0 through 255 |
Single | Single | single precision floating point | 4 bytes | -3.45E+38 through -1.4E-45 for negative values;
|
Double | Double | double precision floating point | 8 bytes | -1.7E+308 through -4.9E-324 for negative values;
|
Currency | Decimal | extended precision fixed point | 8 bytes | -922,337,203,685,477.5808 to 922,337,203,685,477.5807
|
String(n) | String | fixed length string | n bytes | |
String | String | variable length string | 10+(string length) | |
Date | DateTime | 8 bytes | 00:00:00 AM on January 1, 0001 through 11:59:59 PM on December 31, 9999 | |
Variant | Variant | 4 bytes | Stores any type of data |
VBScript
Data types
VBScript has only one data type called a Variant.
Subtype | Category | Value range |
---|---|---|
Boolean | True or False | |
Integer | signed integer | -32768 through 32767 |
Long | signed long integer | -2,1E+9 through 2,1E+9 precision: 9 decimals |
Byte | unsigned byte | 0 through 255 |
Single | single precision floating point | -3.45E+38 through -1.4E-45 for negative values; 1.4E-45 through 3.4E+38 for positive values; precision: 6 decimals |
Double | double precision floating point | -1.7E+308 through -4.9E-324 for negative values; 4.9E-324 through 1.7E+308 for positive values; precision: 16 decimals |
Currency | extended precision fixed point | -922,337,203,685,477.5808 to 922,337,203,685,477.5807 0 through ±9.2E14 smallest nonzero number is 0.0001; |
String | variable length string | |
Date | 00:00:00 AM on January 1, 0001 through 11:59:59 PM on December 31, 9999 | |
Object | Stores any object reference | |
Empty | Variant is uninitialized | |
Null | Variant has no valid data | |
Error | Variant contains an error number |
Visual Basic
Data types
Data type | Runtime type | Category | Storage allocation | Value range |
---|---|---|---|---|
Boolean | Boolean | 1 byte | True or False | |
Integer | Int16 | signed integer | 2 bytes | -32768 through 32767 |
Long | Int32 | signed long integer | 4 bytes | -2,1E+9 through 2,1E+9
|
Byte | UInt8 | unsigned byte | 1 byte | 0 through 255 |
Single | Single | single precision floating point | 4 bytes | -3.45E+38 through -1.4E-45 for negative values;
|
Double | Double | double precision floating point | 8 bytes | -1.7E+308 through -4.9E-324 for negative values;
|
Currency | Decimal | extended precision fixed point | 8 bytes | -922,337,203,685,477.5808 to 922,337,203,685,477.5807
|
String(n) | String | fixed length string | n bytes | |
String | String | variable length string | 10+(string length) | |
Date | DateTime | 8 bytes | 00:00:00 AM on January 1, 0001 through 11:59:59 PM on December 31, 9999 | |
Variant | Variant | 4 bytes | Stores any type of data | |
Object | Object | 4 bytes | Stores any object reference |
Visual Basic .NET
Variable declaration
<lang vbnet>Dim variable As datatype
Dim var1,var2,... As datatype</lang>
example:
<lang vbnet>Dim n1,n2 as Integer
Dim x as Double
Dim isRaining as Boolean
Dim greeting as String</lang>
Initialization
<lang vbnet>Dim variable As datatype = value
Dim var1,var2,... As datatype</lang>
example:
<lang vbnet>Dim wholeNumber1,wholeNumber2 as Integer = 3
Dim realNumber as Double = 3.0
Dim isRaining as Boolean = False
Dim greeting as String = "Hello, this is World speaking."
Dim longArray() As Long = {0, 1, 2, 3}
Dim twoDimensions(,) As Integer = {{0, 1, 2}, {10, 11, 12}}</lang>
Assignment
<lang vbnet>variable = expression</lang>
<lang vbnet> v = a
d = b^2 - 4*a*c s3 = s1 & mid(s2,3,2)</lang>
<lang vbnet>variable <operator>= expression2</lang> <lang vbnet> c += a
c -= a c *= a c /= a c ^= a c <<= n c >>= n c &= a</lang>
Data types
Data type | Runtime type | Category | Storage allocation | Value range |
---|---|---|---|---|
Boolean | Boolean | 1 byte | True or False | |
Char | Char | unsigned | 2 bytes | 0 through 65535 |
SByte | Int8 | signed byte | 1 byte | -128 through 127 |
Short | Int16 | signed short integer | 2 bytes | -32,768 through 32,767 |
Integer | Int32 | signed integer | 4 bytes | -2,1E+9 through 2,1E+9 precision: 9 decimals |
Long | Int64 | signed long integer | 8 bytes | -9.2E+18 through 9.2E+18 precision: 18 decimals |
Byte | UInt8 | unsigned byte | 1 byte | 0 through 255 |
UShort | UInt16 | unsigned short integer | 2 bytes | 0 through 65,535 |
UInteger | UInt32 | unsigned integer | 4 bytes | 0 through 4,2E+9 |
ULong | UInt64 | unsigned long integer | 8 bytes | 0 through 1.8E+19 |
Single | Single | single precision floating point | 4 bytes | -3.45E+38 through -1.4E-45 for negative values; 1.4E-45 through 3.4E+38 for positive values; precision: 6 decimals |
Double | Double | double precision floating point | 8 bytes | -1.7E+308 through -4.9E-324 for negative values; 4.9E-324 through 1.7E+308 for positive values; precision: 16 decimals |
Decimal | Decimal | extended precision fixed point | 16 bytes | 0 through ±7.9E+28 with no decimal point; 0 through ±7.9 with 28 places to the right of the decimal; smallest nonzero number is ±1E-28; precision: 28 decimals |
String | String | variable length string | ||
Date | DateTime | 8 bytes | 00:00:00 AM on January 1, 0001 through 11:59:59 PM on December 31, 9999 | |
Object | Object | 4 bytes on 32-bit platform 8 bytes on 64-bit platform |
scope
By default the scope of a variable is local to the sub
, function
or module
.
By default the scope of a sub
or function
is global to the project.
Attributes Public
or Private
can mofidy these scopes.
Vlang
<lang>name := 'Bob' age := 20 large_number := i64(9999999999)</lang> Variables are declared and initialized with :=. This is the only way to declare variables in V. This means that variables always have an initial value.
The variable's type is inferred from the value on the right hand side. To choose a different type, use type conversion: the expression T(v) converts the value v to the type T.
Unlike most other languages, V only allows defining variables in functions. Global (module level) variables are not allowed. There's no global state in V (see Pure functions by default for details).
For consistency across different code bases, all variable and function names must use the snake_case style, as opposed to type names, which must use PascalCase.
Mutable variables <lang>mut age := 20 println(age) // 20 age = 21 println(age) // 21</lang> To change the value of the variable use =. In V, variables are immutable by default. To be able to change the value of the variable, you have to declare it with mut.
Initialization vs assignment Note the (important) difference between := and =. := is used for declaring and initializing, = is used for assigning.
The values of multiple variables can be changed in one line. In this way, their values can be swapped without an intermediary variable. <lang>mut a := 0 mut b := 1 println('$a, $b') // 0, 1 a, b = b, a println('$a, $b') // 1, 0</lang> Declaration errors In development mode the compiler will warn you that you haven't used the variable (you'll get an "unused variable" warning). In production mode (enabled by passing the -prod flag to v – v -prod foo.v) it will not compile at all (like in Go). <lang>fn main() { a := 10 if true { a := 20 // error: redefinition of `a` } // warning: unused variable `a` }</lang> Unlike most languages, variable shadowing is not allowed. Declaring a variable with a name that is already used in a parent scope will cause a compilation error.
WDTE
WDTE does not have variables, per se, but it does have several things that work similarly. The most obvious is function parameters:
<lang WDTE>let example t => io.writeln io.stdout t;</lang>
The parameters are scoped to the inside of the function in which they're declared. There are also lambdas, which also have parameters:
<lang WDTE>let example t => 3 -> (@ s n => * t n);</lang>
Lambdas are closures, so they have access to the parameters of the function that called them. The above multiplies 3 by the value of t.
There are also 'slots' for chains. Chains are essentially a series of expressions that are all 'chained' together. They take advantage of the fact that everything in WDTE is a function. In a chain, the first is called, then the second, and then the return of the second is called with the return of the first as an argument, then the third is called, and then its return is called with the output of the previous segment, and so on. In each element of the chain, a 'slot' can be specified which serves as a named binding for accessing that element's return value later. For example:
<lang WDTE>let writeToFile name data =>
file.open name : f -> str.format '{}' data -> io.writeln f -- io.close f ;</lang>
In this example, first file.open name
is called. After this, the return value of that call can be accessed later in the chain using f
. This is done in the last element as a way of closing the file.
Finally, an expression can also be bound to a name using a let
expression, like in the function declarations shown above, as assigning a value to a function with no parameters is similar to creating a constant. When a let
is encountered, all following expressions in the current block of code are run under a subscope of the current scope, which gives much the same effect as a variable assignment. For example:
<lang WDTE>let a => 3; io.writeln io.stdout a;</lang>
Wren
Wren is dynamically typed and variables can be assigned or reassigned values of any type.
If a variable is declared but not assigned a value, it is given the special value 'null'.
A variable can only be declared once for a given scope (top level, block, function, method etc.) but the same variable name can be reused in a nested scope in which case it will hide the variable in the outer scope.
Depending on the type of value assigned, a variable can either hold the value directly (value type) or a reference to where an object is stored in memory (reference type). Values of the built-in types: Num, Bool and Null are value types and all other types are reference types. However, values of the built-in String, Class and Range types are immutable and are always copied/compared by value rather than by reference. Consequently they behave as though they were value types.
Here are a few examples. <lang ecmascript>var a // declares the variable 'a' with the default value of 'null' a = 1 // initializes 'a' a = "a" // assigns a different value to 'a' var b = 2 // declares and initializes 'b' at the same time b = true // assigns a different value to 'b' var c = [3, 4] // 'c' is assigned a List which is a reference type c = false // 'c' is reassigned a Bool which is a value type
var d = 1 // declaration at top level {
var d = 2 // declaration within a nested scope, hides top level 'd' var e = 3 // not visible outside its scope i.e this block
} System.print(d) // prints the value of the top level 'd' System.print(e) // compiler error : Variable is used but not defined</lang>
XPL0
There are only three variable types: 32-bit signed integers (in the 32-bit version), IEEE-754 64-bit reals, and characters which are actually 32-bit addresses of (or pointers to) strings. When a 'char' variable is subscripted, it accesses a single byte. All variable names must be declared before they are used, for example: int I, J, K; real X, Y, Array(10); char String(80); Variables (as well as all declared names, such as for procedures) must start with a capital letter or underline. Names may contain digits or underlines and be any length, but only the first 16 characters are significant. Names are case-insensitive by default, unless the /c switch is used when compiling. Variables are usually assigned values like this: X:= 3.14, but the first declared variables in a procedure can have argument values passed into them. Variables other than arguments are only initialized by explicit assignments in the body of the code. Local variables are encapsulated in the procedures that declare them and are not visible (are out of scope) outside those procedures. Procedures can be (statically) nested several levels deep. The deepest procedure can "see" all variables declared in the procedures in which it is nested. If two variables are declared with identical names, the most local one is used.
XSLT
Although called variables, XSLT "variable" elements are single-assignment, and so behave more like constants. They are valid in the node scope in which they are declared. <lang xml><xsl:variable name="foo" select="XPath expression" /> <xsl:if test="$foo = 4">... </xsl:if> </lang>
Z80 Assembly
Like in 6502 Assembly, variables need not be declared per se. Any memory location can be given a label and a value can be stored at that memory location and retrieved from it. <lang z80>UserRam equ &C000
ld a,&50 ;load hexadecimal 50 into A ld (UserRam),a ;initialize UserRam with a value of &50
ld a,&40 ;load hexadecimal 40 into A ld (UserRam),a ;assign UserRam a new value of &40</lang>
Z80 has two data types: byte and word. Words are little-endian, meaning that the "low byte" is stored first. The two statements below are identical:
<lang z80>byte &EF,&BE word &BEEF</lang>
Bytes can be loaded into 8-bit registers, and words can be loaded into 16-bit register pairs. A value can be treated as a pointer to a memory location by enclosing it in brackets, which dereferences the pointer before loading from it:
<lang z80>org &8000
ld hl,TestData ;H = &90, L = &00
ld hl,(TestData) ;H = &BE, L = &EF
- In a real program you would need something here to stop the program counter from executing the data below as instructions.
- For simplicity this was left out.
org &9000 TestData: byte &EF,&BE</lang>
Scope does not exist in Z80 Assembly by default, unless enforced by the assembler itself. Assemblers that do not support local labels will require all labels to be unique.
zkl
The are two variable type in zkl, register (auto in C) and var (instance variable). vars are global to class [instance], registers are visible to their scope and enclosed scopes. In addition, a function can have vars (static var in C), which are actually [hidden] instance data. vars have no type. <lang zkl>var v; // global to the class that encloses this file class C{ var v } // global to class C, each instance gets a new v class C{fcn f{var v=123;}} // v can only be seen by f, initialized when C is class C{fcn init{var [const] v=5;}} // init is part of the constructor,
so vars are promoted yo class scope. This allows const vars to be created at construction time
var v=123; v="hoho"; //not typed class C{var v} // C.v OK, but just v is not found class C{var[const]v=4} // C.v=3 illegal (compile or run time, depending) class C{var[mixin]v=4} // the compiler treats v as an int for type checking class C{var[proxy]v=f; fcn f{println("my name is ",self.fcn.name)} }
v acts like a property to run f so C.v is the same as C.f()
class C{reg r} // C.r is compile time error r:=5; // := syntax is same as "reg r=5", convenience</lang>
Zoea
<lang Zoea>program: variables
- The concept of variables is completely alien in zoea:
- there is no support for variables and no way of defining or using them.
- Instead programs are described by giving examples of input and output values.
</lang>