Exceptions/Catch an exception thrown in a nested call
You are encouraged to solve this task according to the task description, using any language you may know.
Show how to create a user-defined exception and show how to catch an exception raised from several nested calls away.
- Create two user-defined exceptions, U0 and U1.
- Have function foo call function bar twice.
- Have function bar call function baz.
- Arrange for function baz to raise, or throw exception U0 on its first call, then exception U1 on its second.
- Function foo should catch only exception U0, not U1.
Show/describe what happens when the program is run.
11l
<lang 11l>T U0 {} T U1 {}
F baz(i)
I i == 0
X U0()
E
X U1()
F bar(i)
baz(i)
F foo()
L(i) 0..1
X.try
bar(i)
X.catch U0
print(‘Function foo caught exception U0’)
foo()</lang>
- Output:
Function foo caught exception U0
The exact behavior for an uncaught exception is implementation-defined [as in C++].
Ada
<lang ada>with Ada.Text_Io; use Ada.Text_Io;
procedure Exceptions_From_Nested_Calls is
U0 : exception;
U1 : exception;
Baz_Count : Natural := 0;
procedure Baz is
begin
Baz_Count := Baz_Count + 1;
if Baz_Count = 1 then
raise U0;
else
raise U1;
end if;
end Baz;
procedure Bar is
begin
Baz;
end Bar;
procedure Foo is
begin
Bar;
exception
when U0 =>
Put_Line("Procedure Foo caught exception U0");
end Foo;
begin
for I in 1..2 loop
Foo;
end loop;
end Exceptions_From_Nested_Calls;</lang>
- Output:
Procedure Foo caught exception U0 raised EXCEPTIONS_FROM_NESTED_CALLS.U1 : exceptions_from_nested_calls.adb:13
An unhandled exception leads to termination of the corresponding task. When the task is the main task of the program as in the example, the whole program is terminated. In the example the exception back tracing message is compiler-specific (in this case it is GNAT and further depends on the compiler options.
Aime
<lang aime>void baz(integer i) {
error(cat("U", itoa(i)));
}
void bar(integer i) {
baz(i);
}
void foo(void) {
integer i;
i = 0;
while (i < 2) {
text e;
if (trap_d(e, bar, i)) {
o_form("Exception `~' thrown\n", e);
if (e != "U0") {
o_text("will not catch exception\n"); error(e); } } i += 1;
}
o_text("Never reached.\n");
}
integer main(void) {
foo();
return 0;
}</lang>
- Output:
Exception `U0' thrown Exception `U1' thrown will not catch exception aime: nec: 26: U1
Exception U0 is caught, exception U1 is caught and re-thrown. Program execution is terminated as the U1 exception is not caught when thrown the second time.
ALGOL 68
The following example follows the method used by ALGOL 68 for handling events in the language's transput prelude. Note that in the transput, then exception is effectively bound to the file handle, hence different file events can be caught by event handler associated to that particular file. Similarly the following example has bound two unique exceptions - u0 & u1 - to each unique instance of object.
c.f. ALGOL 68 Exceptions for more details. <lang algol68>MODE OBJ = STRUCT(
INT value, STRUCT( STRING message, FLEX[0]STRING args, PROC(REF OBJ)BOOL u0, u1 ) exception
);
PROC on u0 = (REF OBJ self, PROC (REF OBJ) BOOL mended)VOID:
u0 OF exception OF self := mended;
PROC on u1 = (REF OBJ self, PROC (REF OBJ) BOOL mended)VOID:
u1 OF exception OF self := mended;
PRIO INIT = 1, RAISE = 1;
OP INIT = (REF OBJ self, INT value)REF OBJ: (
value OF self := value; u0 OF exception OF self := u1 OF exception OF self := (REF OBJ skip)BOOL: FALSE; args OF exception OF self := message OF exception OF self := "OBJ Exception"; self
);
OP RAISE = (REF OBJ self, PROC (REF OBJ) BOOL mended)VOID:
IF NOT mended(self) THEN put(stand error, (message OF exception OF self+" not caught - stop", new line)); stop FI;
PROC (REF OBJ)VOID bar, baz; # early declaration is required by the ALGOL 68RS subset language #
PROC foo := VOID:(
FOR value FROM 0 TO 1 DO
REF OBJ i = LOC OBJ INIT value;
on u0(i, (REF OBJ skip)BOOL: (GO TO except u0; SKIP ));
bar(i);
GO TO end on u0;
except u0:
print(("Function foo caught exception u0", new line));
end on u0: SKIP
OD
);
- PROC # bar := (REF OBJ i)VOID:(
baz(i) # Nest those calls #
);
- PROC # baz := (REF OBJ i)VOID:
IF value OF i = 0 THEN
i RAISE u0 OF exception OF i
ELSE
i RAISE u1 OF exception OF i
FI;
foo</lang>
- Output:
Function foo caught exception u0 OBJ Exception not caught - stop
Note: when an event occurs there are three possible responses.
- return false - in which case the default action takes place.
- mend the object and return true - date is mended and the program can continue from the point the event was raised.
- jump to an appropriately named label - effectively abandoning the offending section of code.
In the case of parallel processing, if the label is outside of the par clause, then all parallel the threads are terminated and the program continues in the parent thread.
APL
<lang APL>:Namespace Traps
⍝ Traps (exceptions) are just numbers
⍝ 500-999 are reserved for the user
U0 U1←900 901
⍝ Catch
∇foo;i
:For i :In ⍳2
:Trap U0
bar i
:Else
⎕←'foo caught U0'
:EndTrap
:EndFor
∇
⍝ Throw
∇bar i
⎕SIGNAL U0 U1[i]
∇
- EndNamespace</lang>
- Output:
Traps.foo
foo caught U0
ERROR 901
foo[3] bar i
∧
AutoHotkey
True exceptions
In AutoHotkey_L, Try, Catch, and Throw are available to handle exceptions.
When this program is run, the first exception (U0) is raised, and caught by the try-catch section. This causes a Message Box containing the text "An exception was raised: First Exception" to be displayed by the script. The second exception is not caught, generating a runtime error.
<lang AHK>global U0 := Exception("First Exception")
global U1 := Exception("Second Exception")
foo()
foo(){ try bar() catch e MsgBox % "An exception was raised: " e.Message bar() }
bar(){ baz() }
baz(){ static calls := 0 if ( ++calls = 1 ) throw U0 else if ( calls = 2 ) throw U1 }</lang> The runtime error:
Error: Second Exception
Line#
019: calls := 0
001: U0 := Exception("First Exception")
---> 002: U1 := Exception("Second Exception")
004: foo()
006: {
007: Try
008: bar()
009: Catch,e
010: MsgBox,"An exception was raised: " e.Message
011: bar()
The thread has exited.
ErrorLevel-based exceptions
AutoHotkey_Basic has very simple support for error tracking. The global ErrorLevel keeps track of the last error. Here is one way to keep track of nested errors: <lang AutoHotkey>foo() Return
foo() {
bar(0) If InStr(ErrorLevel, "U0") MsgBox caught error: U0 bar(1) If InStr(ErrorLevel, "U0") MsgBox caught error: U0
}
bar(i) {
StringReplace, ErrorLevel, ErrorLevel, baz_error, , All ; clear baz_error(s) If !baz(i) ErrorLevel .= "baz_error" ; add baz_error to errorstack
}
baz(i) {
StringReplace, ErrorLevel, ErrorLevel, U1, , All ; clear U1 errors StringReplace, ErrorLevel, ErrorLevel, U0, , All ; clear U0 errors If i ErrorLevel .= "U1" ; add U1 errors to errorstack Else ErrorLevel .= "U0" Return 1
}</lang>
BBC BASIC
<lang bbcbasic> REM Allocate error numbers:
U0& = 123
U1& = 124
PROCfoo
END
DEF PROCfoo
ON ERROR LOCAL IF ERR = U0& THEN PRINT "Exception U0 caught in foo" ELSE \
\ RESTORE ERROR : ERROR ERR, REPORT$
PROCbar
PROCbar
ENDPROC
DEF PROCbar
PROCbaz
ENDPROC
DEF PROCbaz
PRIVATE called%
called% += 1
CASE called% OF
WHEN 1: ERROR U0&, "Exception U0 thrown"
WHEN 2: ERROR U1&, "Exception U1 thrown"
ENDCASE
ENDPROC
</lang>
- Output:
(the second message is output by the default error handler)
Exception U0 caught in foo Exception U1 thrown
C
C doesn't have an exception handling mechanism, so we have to decide what we want from an exception.
1. Return from a function with an error added to exception context. 2. Detect that a exception was thrown by checking the context after a function call. 3. Recover an error type and message. 4. Return from a function after throwing/catching an exception in a way which allows cleanup code to be called (vs. jumping outside the function).
In conclusion, try/throw/catch keywords are not available in C, nor is their functionality, so while the following code tries to fulfill the task's requirements, no attempt is made to mimic them. The goal has been to provide some modicum level of usefulness for someone actually looking at this for ideas for their own code. U0 and U1 are boring for debugging purposes. Added something to help with that.
<lang C>#include <stdio.h>
- include <stdlib.h>
typedef struct exception {
int extype;
char what[128];
} exception;
typedef struct exception_ctx {
exception * exs;
int size;
int pos;
} exception_ctx;
exception_ctx * Create_Ex_Ctx(int length) {
const int safety = 8; // alignment precaution.
char * tmp = (char*) malloc(safety+sizeof(exception_ctx)+sizeof(exception)*length);
if (! tmp) return NULL;
exception_ctx * ctx = (exception_ctx*)tmp;
ctx->size = length;
ctx->pos = -1;
ctx->exs = (exception*) (tmp + sizeof(exception_ctx));
return ctx;
}
void Free_Ex_Ctx(exception_ctx * ctx) {
free(ctx);
}
int Has_Ex(exception_ctx * ctx) {
return (ctx->pos >= 0) ? 1 : 0;
}
int Is_Ex_Type(exception_ctx * exctx, int extype) {
return (exctx->pos >= 0 && exctx->exs[exctx->pos].extype == extype) ? 1 : 0;
}
void Pop_Ex(exception_ctx * ctx) {
if (ctx->pos >= 0) --ctx->pos;
}
const char * Get_What(exception_ctx * ctx) {
if (ctx->pos >= 0) return ctx->exs[ctx->pos].what;
return NULL;
}
int Push_Ex(exception_ctx * exctx, int extype, const char * msg) {
if (++exctx->pos == exctx->size) {
// Use last slot and report error.
--exctx->pos;
fprintf(stderr, "*** Error: Overflow in exception context.\n");
}
snprintf(exctx->exs[exctx->pos].what, sizeof(exctx->exs[0].what), "%s", msg);
exctx->exs[exctx->pos].extype = extype;
return -1;
}
//////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
exception_ctx * GLOBALEX = NULL; enum { U0_DRINK_ERROR = 10, U1_ANGRYBARTENDER_ERROR };
void baz(int n) {
if (! n) {
Push_Ex(GLOBALEX, U0_DRINK_ERROR , "U0 Drink Error. Insufficient drinks in bar Baz.");
return;
}
else {
Push_Ex(GLOBALEX, U1_ANGRYBARTENDER_ERROR , "U1 Bartender Error. Bartender kicked customer out of bar Baz.");
return;
}
}
void bar(int n) {
fprintf(stdout, "Bar door is open.\n");
baz(n);
if (Has_Ex(GLOBALEX)) goto bar_cleanup;
fprintf(stdout, "Baz has been called without errors.\n");
bar_cleanup:
fprintf(stdout, "Bar door is closed.\n");
}
void foo() {
fprintf(stdout, "Foo entering bar.\n");
bar(0);
while (Is_Ex_Type(GLOBALEX, U0_DRINK_ERROR)) {
fprintf(stderr, "I am foo() and I deaall wrth U0 DriNk Errors with my own bottle... GOT oNE! [%s]\n", Get_What(GLOBALEX));
Pop_Ex(GLOBALEX);
}
if (Has_Ex(GLOBALEX)) return;
fprintf(stdout, "Foo left the bar.\n");
fprintf(stdout, "Foo entering bar again.\n");
bar(1);
while (Is_Ex_Type(GLOBALEX, U0_DRINK_ERROR)) {
fprintf(stderr, "I am foo() and I deaall wrth U0 DriNk Errors with my own bottle... GOT oNE! [%s]\n", Get_What(GLOBALEX));
Pop_Ex(GLOBALEX);
}
if (Has_Ex(GLOBALEX)) return;
fprintf(stdout, "Foo left the bar.\n");
}
int main(int argc, char ** argv) {
exception_ctx * ctx = Create_Ex_Ctx(5);
GLOBALEX = ctx;
foo();
if (Has_Ex(ctx)) goto main_ex;
fprintf(stdout, "No errors encountered.\n");
main_ex:
while (Has_Ex(ctx)) {
fprintf(stderr, "*** Error: %s\n", Get_What(ctx));
Pop_Ex(ctx);
}
Free_Ex_Ctx(ctx);
return 0;
}
</lang>
- Output:
Foo entering bar. Bar door is open. Bar door is closed. I am foo() and I deaall wrth U0 DriNk Errors with my own bottle... GOT oNE! [U0 Drink Error. Insufficient drinks in bar Baz.] Foo left the bar. Foo entering bar again. Bar door is open. Bar door is closed. *** Error: U1 Bartender Error. Bartender kicked customer out of bar Baz.
C#
This example will first catch U0 and print "U0 Caught" to the console when it does. The uncaught U1 exception will then cause the program to terminate and print the type of the exception, location of the error, and the stack.
<lang csharp>using System; //Used for Exception and Console classes class Exceptions {
class U0 : Exception { }
class U1 : Exception { }
static int i;
static void foo()
{
for (i = 0; i < 2; i++)
try
{
bar();
}
catch (U0) {
Console.WriteLine("U0 Caught");
}
}
static void bar()
{
baz();
}
static void baz(){
if (i == 0)
throw new U0();
throw new U1();
}
public static void Main()
{
foo();
}
}</lang>
- Output:
U0 Caught Unhandled Exception: Exceptions+U1: Exception of type 'Exceptions+U1' was thrown. at Exceptions.baz() in Program.cs:line 27 at Exceptions.bar() in Program.cs:line 22 at Exceptions.foo() in Program.cs:line 14 at Exceptions.Main() in Program.cs:line 32
C++
First exception will be caught and message will be displayed, second will be caught by the default exception handler, which as required by the C++ Standard, will call terminate(), aborting the task, typically with an error message.
<lang cpp>#include <iostream> class U0 {}; class U1 {};
void baz(int i) {
if (!i) throw U0(); else throw U1();
} void bar(int i) { baz(i); }
void foo() {
for (int i = 0; i < 2; i++)
{
try {
bar(i);
} catch(U0 e) {
std::cout<< "Exception U0 caught\n";
} }
}
int main() {
foo(); std::cout<< "Should never get here!\n"; return 0;
}</lang>
Result:
Exception U0 caught This application has requested the Runtime to terminate it in an unusual way.
The exact behavior for an uncaught exception is implementation-defined.
Clojure
<lang clojure>(def U0 (ex-info "U0" {})) (def U1 (ex-info "U1" {}))
(defn baz [x] (if (= x 0) (throw U0) (throw U1))) (defn bar [x] (baz x))
(defn foo []
(dotimes [x 2]
(try
(bar x)
(catch clojure.lang.ExceptionInfo e
(if (= e U0)
(println "foo caught U0")
(throw e))))))
(defn -main [& args]
(foo))</lang>
- Output:
foo caught U0
Exception in thread "main" clojure.lang.ExceptionInfo: U1 {}
at clojure.core$ex_info.invoke(core.clj:4403)
at X.core__init.load(Unknown Source)
...
The first line of the output is generated from catching the U0 exception in function foo on the first call to bar.
On the second call to bar, U1 is caught and re-thrown, which gives a stack trace of the uncaught exception, U1.
This example uses clojure.lang.ExceptionInfo, but Java Exceptions can be used instead.
Common Lisp
<lang lisp>(define-condition user-condition-1 (error) ()) (define-condition user-condition-2 (error) ())
(defun foo ()
(dolist (type '(user-condition-1 user-condition-2))
(handler-case
(bar type)
(user-condition-1 (c)
(format t "~&foo: Caught: ~A~%" c)))))
(defun bar (type)
(baz type))
(defun baz (type)
(error type)) ; shortcut for (error (make-condition type))
(trace foo bar baz) (foo)</lang>
- Output:
(the numbered lines are output from trace)
<lang lisp> 0: (FOO)
1: (BAR USER-CONDITION-1)
2: (BAZ USER-CONDITION-1)
foo: Caught: Condition USER-CONDITION-1 was signalled.
1: (BAR USER-CONDITION-2)
2: (BAZ USER-CONDITION-2)</lang>
At this point, the debugger (if any) is invoked with the unhandled condition of type USER-CONDITION-2.
Crystal
<lang ruby>class U0 < Exception end
class U1 < Exception end
def foo
2.times do |i|
begin
bar(i)
rescue e : U0
puts "rescued #{e}"
end
end
end
def bar(i : Int32)
baz(i)
end
def baz(i : Int32)
raise U0.new("this is u0") if i == 0
raise U1.new("this is u1") if i == 1
end
foo</lang>
rescued this is u0 Unhandled exception: this is u1 (U1) from exceptions_nested.cr:28:2 in 'baz' from exceptions_nested.cr:23:2 in 'bar' from exceptions_nested.cr:15:7 in 'foo' from exceptions_nested.cr:31:1 in '__crystal_main' from /usr/local/Cellar/crystal/0.32.1/src/crystal/main.cr:97:5 in 'main_user_code' from /usr/local/Cellar/crystal/0.32.1/src/crystal/main.cr:86:7 in 'main' from /usr/local/Cellar/crystal/0.32.1/src/crystal/main.cr:106:3 in 'main'
D
First exception will be caught and message will be displayed, second will be caught by default exception handler. <lang d>class U0 : Exception {
this() @safe pure nothrow { super("U0 error message"); }
}
class U1 : Exception {
this() @safe pure nothrow { super("U1 error message"); }
}
void foo() {
import std.stdio;
foreach (immutable i; 0 .. 2) {
try {
i.bar;
} catch (U0) {
"Function foo caught exception U0".writeln;
}
}
}
void bar(in int i) @safe pure {
i.baz;
}
void baz(in int i) @safe pure {
throw i ? new U1 : new U0;
}
void main() {
foo;
}</lang>
- Output:
test.U1(at)test.d(8): U1 error message ---------------- \test.d(20): pure void test.bar(int) \test.d(25): void test.baz() \test.d(33): _Dmain ---------------- Exception U0 caught
Delphi
<lang delphi>program ExceptionsInNestedCall;
{$APPTYPE CONSOLE}
uses SysUtils;
type
U0 = class(Exception) end; U1 = class(Exception) end;
procedure Baz(i: Integer); begin
if i = 0 then
raise U0.Create('U0 Error message')
else
raise U1.Create('U1 Error message');
end;
procedure Bar(i: Integer); begin
Baz(i);
end;
procedure Foo; var
i: Integer;
begin
for i := 0 to 1 do
begin
try
Bar(i);
except
on E: U0 do
Writeln('Exception ' + E.ClassName + ' caught');
end;
end;
end;
begin
Foo;
end.</lang>
- Output:
Exception U0 caught
The uncaught exception shows a Windows Error Report dialog.
DWScript
First exception will be caught and message will be displayed, second will be caught by default exception handler. <lang delphi>type Exception1 = class (Exception) end; type Exception2 = class (Exception) end;
procedure Baz(i : Integer); begin
if i=0 then
raise new Exception1('Error message 1')
else raise new Exception2('Error message 2');
end;
procedure Bar(i : Integer); begin
Baz(i);
end;
procedure Foo; var
i : Integer;
begin
for i:=0 to 2 do begin
try
Bar(i);
except
on E : Exception1 do
PrintLn(E.ClassName+' caught');
end;
end;
end;
Foo;</lang> Result:
Exception1 caught User defined exception: Error message 2
Dyalect
<lang dyalect>var bazCallCount = 0
func baz() {
bazCallCount += 1
if bazCallCount == 1 {
throw @BazCall1()
} else if bazCallCount == 2 {
throw @BazCall2()
}
}
func bar() {
baz()
}
func foo() {
var calls = 2
while calls > 0 {
try {
bar()
} catch {
@BazCall1() => print("BazzCall1 caught.")
}
calls -= 1
}
}
foo()</lang>
- Output:
BazzCall1 caught. Error D601: BazCall2
EchoLisp
<lang lisp> (define (foo)
(for ((i 2))
(try
(bar i)
(catch (id message)
(if (= id 'U0)
(writeln message 'catched)
(error id "not catched"))))))
(define (bar i)
(baz i))
(define (baz i)
(if (= i 0)
(throw 'U0 "U0 raised")
(throw 'U1 "U1 raised")))
(foo) →
"U0 raised" catched 👓 error: U1 not catched
</lang>
EGL
<lang EGL>record U0 type Exception end
record U1 type Exception end
program Exceptions
function main()
foo();
end
function foo()
try
bar();
onException(ex U0)
SysLib.writeStdout("Caught a U0 with message: '" :: ex.message :: "'");
end
bar();
end
function bar()
baz();
end
firstBazCall boolean = true;
function baz()
if(firstBazCall)
firstBazCall = false;
throw new U0{message = "This is the U0 exception"};
else
throw new U1{message = "This is the U1 exception"};
end
end
end</lang>
- Output:
Caught a U0 with message: 'This is the U0 exception' This is the U1 exception
Eiffel
version 2.4
A file called main.e: <lang eiffel>class MAIN
inherit EXCEPTIONS
creation foo
feature {ANY}
baz_calls: INTEGER
feature foo is
do
Current.bar
rescue
if is_developer_exception_of_name("U0") then
baz_calls := 1
print("Caught U0 exception.%N")
retry
end
if is_developer_exception then
print("Won't catch ")
print(developer_exception_name)
print(" exception...%N")
end
end
feature bar is
do
Current.baz
end
feature baz is
do
if baz_calls = 0 then
raise("U0")
else
raise("U1")
end
end
end</lang>
- Output:
Caught U0 exception.
Won't catch U1 exception...
Exception number 3 not handled.
Developer exception:
3 frames in current stack.
===== Bottom of run-time stack =====
<system root>
Current = MAIN#0x8068038
[ baz_calls = 1
]
line 9 column 13 file ./main.e
======================================
foo MAIN
Current = MAIN#0x8068038
[ baz_calls = 1
]
line 21 column 17 file ./main.e
==== Rescue stack =================
bar MAIN
Current = MAIN#0x8068038
[ baz_calls = 1
]
line 27 column 21 file ./main.e
===== Top of run-time stack =====
Exception number 3 not handled.
Developer exception:
Elena
ELENA 5.0 : <lang elena>import extensions;
class U0 : Exception {
constructor new()
<= new();
}
class U1 : Exception {
constructor new()
<= new();
}
singleton Exceptions {
static int i;
bar()
<= baz();
baz()
{
if (i == 0)
{
U0.raise()
}
else
{
U1.raise()
}
}
foo()
{
for(i := 0, i < 2, i += 1)
{
try
{
self.bar()
}
catch(U0 e)
{
console.printLine("U0 Caught")
}
}
}
}
public program() {
Exceptions.foo()
}</lang>
- Output:
U0 Caught mytest'U1#class Call stack: system'Exception#class.new$system'LiteralValue[1]:exceptions.l(124) system'Exception#class.new[0]:exceptions.l(128) mytest'Exceptions.baz[0]:test.l(21) mytest'Exceptions.bar[0]:test.l(12) mytest'Exceptions.foo[0]:test.l(30) mytest'program.eval[0]:test.l(45) system'#inline1AB.start[1]:win32_app.l(35) system'startUp(1)
Elixir
<lang elixir>defmodule U0, do: defexception [:message] defmodule U1, do: defexception [:message]
defmodule ExceptionsTest do
def foo do
Enum.each([0,1], fn i ->
try do
bar(i)
rescue
U0 -> IO.puts "U0 rescued"
end
end)
end
def bar(i), do: baz(i)
def baz(0), do: raise U0
def baz(1), do: raise U1
end
ExceptionsTest.foo</lang>
- Output:
U0 rescued
** (U1) got nil while retrieving Exception.message/1 for %U1{message: nil} (expected a string)
ExceptionsTest.exs:18: ExceptionsTest.baz/1
ExceptionsTest.exs:8: anonymous fn/1 in ExceptionsTest.foo/0
(elixir) lib/enum.ex:645: Enum."-each/2-lists^foreach/1-0-"/2
(elixir) lib/enum.ex:645: Enum.each/2
(elixir) lib/code.ex:370: Code.require_file/2
displayed message in version 1.4
Erlang
<lang Erlang> -module( exceptions_catch ).
-export( [task/0] ).
task() -> [foo(X) || X<- lists:seq(1, 2)].
baz( 1 ) -> erlang:throw( u0 ); baz( 2 ) -> erlang:throw( u1 ).
foo( N ) -> try baz( N )
catch _:u0 -> io:fwrite( "Catched ~p~n", [u0] )
end. </lang>
- Output:
76> exceptions_catch:task().
Catched u0
** exception throw: u1
in function exceptions_catch:baz/1 (src/exceptions_catch.erl, line 10)
in call from exceptions_catch:foo/1 (src/exceptions_catch.erl, line 14)
in call from exceptions_catch:'-task/0-lc$^0/1-0-'/1 (src/exceptions_catch.erl, line 5)
in call from exceptions_catch:'-task/0-lc$^0/1-0-'/1 (src/exceptions_catch.erl, line 5)
Factor
<lang factor>USING: combinators.extras continuations eval formatting kernel ; IN: rosetta-code.nested-exceptions
ERROR: U0 ; ERROR: U1 ;
- baz ( -- )
"IN: rosetta-code.nested-exceptions : baz ( -- ) U1 ;" ( -- ) eval U0 ;
- bar ( -- ) baz ;
- foo ( -- )
[
[ bar ] [
dup T{ U0 } =
[ "%u recovered\n" printf ] [ rethrow ] if
] recover
] twice ;
foo</lang>
- Output:
T{ U0 } recovered
U1
(U) Quotation: [ c-to-factor => ]
Word: c-to-factor
(U) Quotation: [ [ (get-catchstack) push ] dip call => (get-catchstack) pop* ]
(O) Word: command-line-startup
(O) Word: run-script
(O) Word: foo
(O) Word: baz
(O) Word: U1
(O) Method: M\ object throw
(U) Quotation: [
OBJ-CURRENT-THREAD special-object error-thread set-global
current-continuation => error-continuation set-global
[ original-error set-global ] [ rethrow ] bi
]
Fantom
<lang fantom> const class U0 : Err {
new make () : super ("U0") {}
}
const class U1 : Err {
new make () : super ("U1") {}
}
class Main {
Int bazCalls := 0
Void baz ()
{
bazCalls += 1
if (bazCalls == 1)
throw U0()
else
throw U1()
}
Void bar ()
{
baz ()
}
Void foo ()
{
2.times
{
try
{
bar ()
}
catch (U0 e)
{
echo ("Caught U0")
}
}
}
public static Void main ()
{
Main().foo
}
} </lang>
- Output:
Caught U0 nestedexceptions_0::U1: U1 nestedexceptions_0::U1.<init> (nested-exceptions.fan) nestedexceptions_0::U1.make (nested-exceptions.fan:9) nestedexceptions_0::Main.baz (nested-exceptions.fan:22) nestedexceptions_0::Main.bar (nested-exceptions.fan:27) nestedexceptions_0::Main.foo (nested-exceptions.fan:36) fan.sys.FanInt.times (FanInt.java:492) nestedexceptions_0::Main.foo (nested-exceptions.fan:33) nestedexceptions_0::Main.main (nested-exceptions.fan:47) java.lang.reflect.Method.invoke (Method.java:597) fan.sys.Method.invoke (Method.java:552) fan.sys.Method$MethodFunc.callList (Method.java:198) fan.sys.Method.callList (Method.java:138) fanx.tools.Fan.callMain (Fan.java:135) fanx.tools.Fan.executeFile (Fan.java:88) fanx.tools.Fan.execute (Fan.java:34) fanx.tools.Fan.run (Fan.java:250) fanx.tools.Fan.main (Fan.java:288)
The output shows the first exception is caught and handled. The second exception is not handled, and results in the program finishing and printing a stack trace.
FreeBASIC
FreeBASIC does not support exceptions or the Try/Catch/Finally statement, as such. However, you can use the Err() function, together with an If (or Switch) statement, to provide somewhat similar functionality: <lang freebasic>' FB 1.05.0 Win64
Enum ErrorTypes
U0 = 1000 U1
End Enum
Function errorName(ex As ErrorTypes) As String
Select Case As Const ex
Case U0
Return "U0"
Case U1
Return "U1"
End Select
End Function
Sub catchError(ex As ErrorTypes)
Dim e As Integer = Err cache the error number
If e = ex Then
Print "Error "; errorName(ex); ", number"; ex; " caught"
End If
End Sub
Sub baz()
Static As Integer timesCalled = 0 persisted between procedure calls timesCalled += 1 If timesCalled = 1 Then err = U0 Else err = U1 End if
End Sub
Sub bar()
baz
End Sub
Sub foo()
bar catchError(U0) not interested in U1, assumed non-fatal bar catchError(U0)
End Sub
Foo Print Print "Press any key to quit" Sleep</lang>
- Output:
Error U0, number 1000 caught
Go
Not strictly conforming to task description as foo does not directly call bar.
The panic/recover mechanism of Go is missing (by design) some elements of exception handling needed for this task. Specifically, a function that recovers a panic cannot resume execution of the remainder of the function. If foo recovers a panic in the first call to bar, there is no way for it to make the second call to bar. The solution here is to define a wrapper, or proxy function, called try. Function foo calls bar indirectly through try. <lang go>// Outline for a try/catch-like exception mechanism in Go // // As all Go programmers should know, the Go authors are sharply critical of // the try/catch idiom and consider it bad practice in general. // See http://golang.org/doc/go_faq.html#exceptions
package main
import (
"fmt" "runtime" "strings"
)
// trace is for pretty output for the Rosetta Code task. // It would have no place in a practical program. func trace(s string) {
nc := runtime.Callers(2, cs)
f := runtime.FuncForPC(cs[0])
fmt.Print(strings.Repeat(" ", nc-3), f.Name()[5:], ": ", s, "\n")
}
var cs = make([]uintptr, 10)
type exception struct {
name string handler func()
}
// try implents the try/catch-like exception mechanism. It takes a function // to be called, and a list of exceptions to catch during the function call. // Note that for this simple example, f has no parameters. In a practical // program it might, of course. In this case, the signature of try would // have to be modified to take these parameters and then supply them to f // when it calls f. func try(f func(), exs []exception) {
trace("start")
defer func() {
if pv := recover(); pv != nil {
trace("Panic mode!")
if px, ok := pv.(exception); ok {
for _, ex := range exs {
if ex.name == px.name {
trace("handling exception")
px.handler()
trace("panic over")
return
}
}
}
trace("can't recover this one!")
panic(pv)
}
}()
f()
trace("complete")
}
func main() {
trace("start")
foo()
trace("complete")
}
// u0, u1 declared at package level so they can be accessed by any function. var u0, u1 exception
// foo. Note that function literals u0, u1 here in the lexical scope // of foo serve the purpose of catch blocks of other languages. // Passing u0 to try serves the purpose of the catch condition. // While try(bar... reads much like the try statement of other languages, // this try is an ordinary function. foo is passing bar into try, // not calling it directly. func foo() {
trace("start")
u0 = exception{"U0", func() { trace("U0 handled") }}
u1 = exception{"U1", func() { trace("U1 handled") }}
try(bar, []exception{u0})
try(bar, []exception{u0})
trace("complete")
}
func bar() {
trace("start")
baz()
trace("complete")
}
var bazCall int
func baz() {
trace("start")
bazCall++
switch bazCall {
case 1:
trace("panicking with execption U0")
panic(u0)
case 2:
trace("panicking with execption U1")
panic(u1)
}
trace("complete")
}</lang>
- Output:
main: start
foo: start
try: start
bar: start
baz: start
baz: panicking with execption U0
_func_001: Panic mode!
_func_001: handling exception
_func_002: U0 handled
_func_001: panic over
try: start
bar: start
baz: start
baz: panicking with execption U1
_func_001: Panic mode!
_func_001: can't recover this one!
panic: (main.exception) (0x468040,0xf8400273c0) [recovered]
panic: (main.exception) (0x468040,0xf8400273c0)
goroutine 1 [running]:
main._func_001(0x2af727232f20, 0x2af727232100, 0x2af727232fb8, 0x2af727232e70)
t.go:52 +0x1d9
----- stack segment boundary -----
main.baz()
t.go:100 +0xd1
main.bar()
t.go:85 +0x31
main.try(0x40105b, 0x2af727232f68, 0x100000001, 0x478dec)
t.go:55 +0x4f
main.foo()
t.go:79 +0x16c
main.main()
t.go:61 +0x31
A simpler example, closer to the task description: <lang go>package main
import "fmt"
type U0 struct { error s string } type U1 int
func foo2() { defer func() { // We can't just "catch" U0 and ignore U1 directly but ... if e := recover(); e != nil { // e can be of any type, check for type U0 if x, ok := e.(*U0); ok { // we can only execute code here, // not return to the body of foo2 fmt.Println("Recovered U0:", x.s) // We could cheat and call bar the second time // from here, if it paniced again (even with U0) // it wouldn't get recovered. // Instead we've split foo into two calls to foo2. } else { // ... if we don't want to handle it we can // pass it along. fmt.Println("passing on:", e) panic(e) // like a "re-throw" } } }() bar() }
func foo() { // Call bar twice via foo2 foo2() foo2() fmt.Println("not reached") }
func bar() int { return baz() }
var done bool
func baz() int { if !done { done = true panic(&U0{nil, "a message"}) } panic(U1(42)) }
func main() { foo() fmt.Println("No panic") }</lang> Run in Go Playground.
- Output:
Recovered U0: a message passing on: 42 panic: (main.U1) (0xfc140,0x2a) [recovered] panic: (main.U1) (0xfc140,0x2a) [... go-routine and stack trace omitted ...]
Haskell
<lang haskell>import Control.Monad.Error import Control.Monad.Trans (lift)
-- Our "user-defined exception" tpe data MyError = U0 | U1 | Other deriving (Eq, Read, Show)
-- Required for any error type instance Error MyError where
noMsg = Other strMsg _ = Other
-- Throwing and catching exceptions implies that we are working in a monad. In -- this case, we use ErrorT to support our user-defined exceptions, wrapping -- IO to be able to report the happenings. ('lift' converts ErrorT e IO a -- actions into IO a actions.)
foo = do lift (putStrLn "foo")
mapM_ (\toThrow -> bar toThrow -- the protected call
`catchError` \caught -> -- the catch operation
-- ↓ what to do with it
case caught of U0 -> lift (putStrLn "foo caught U0")
_ -> throwError caught)
[U0, U1] -- the two exceptions to throw
bar toThrow = do lift (putStrLn " bar")
baz toThrow
baz toThrow = do lift (putStrLn " baz")
throwError toThrow
-- We cannot use exceptions without at some outer level choosing what to do -- if an exception propagates all the way up. Here we just print the exception -- if there was one. main = do result <- runErrorT foo
case result of
Left e -> putStrLn ("Caught error at top level: " ++ show e)
Right v -> putStrLn ("Return value: " ++ show v)</lang>
- Output:
foo bar baz foo caught U0 bar baz Caught error at top level: U1
Icon and Unicon
The following Unicon example makes use of support for exceptions found in the The Unicon Code Library. Since exception support is not built into Unicon, but rather implemented as Unicon code, there are limitations not found in languages that natively support exceptions.
<lang Unicon>import Exceptions
class U0 : Exception()
method getMessage()
return "U0: " || (\message | "unknown")
end
end
class U1 : Exception()
method getMessage()
return "U1: " || (\message | "unknown")
end
end
procedure main()
# (Because Exceptions are not built into Unicon, uncaught
# exceptions are ignored. This clause will catch any
# exceptions not caught farther down in the code.)
case Try().call{ foo() } of {
Try().catch(): {
ex := Try().getException()
write(ex.getMessage(), ":\n", ex.getLocation())
}
}
end
procedure foo()
every 1|2 do {
case Try().call{ bar() } of {
Try().catch("U0"): {
ex := Try().getException()
write(ex.getMessage(), ":\n", ex.getLocation())
}
}
}
end
procedure bar()
return baz()
end
procedure baz()
initial U0().throw("First exception")
U1().throw("Second exception")
end</lang>
- Output:
U0: First exception:
procedure baz [Etest5.icn:43]
procedure bar [Etest5.icn:39]
procedure foo [Etest5.icn:29]
U1: Second exception:
procedure baz [Etest5.icn:44]
procedure bar [Etest5.icn:39]
procedure foo [Etest5.icn:29]
Note: it may be possible to implement exceptions in Icon; however, it would require a major rework and would likely be inelegant.
Io
<lang Io>U0 := Exception clone U1 := Exception clone
foo := method(
for(i,1,2,
try(
bar(i)
)catch( U0,
"foo caught U0" print
)pass
)
) bar := method(n,
baz(n)
) baz := method(n,
if(n == 1,U0,U1) raise("baz with n = #{n}" interpolate)
)
foo</lang>
- Output:
foo caught U0 U1: baz with n = 2 --------- U1 raise exceptions_catch_nested.io 34 Object baz exceptions_catch_nested.io 31 Object bar exceptions_catch_nested.io 24
The first line comes from when U0 was caught and the second from when U1 was raised and not caught. This is followed by a traceback with the most recent call first.
J
Solution:
J leaves most of the implementation of exceptions to the programmer, so:
<lang J>main=: monad define
smoutput 'main' try. foo catcht. smoutput 'main caught ',type_jthrow_ end.
)
foo=: monad define
smoutput ' foo' for_i. 0 1 do. try. bar i catcht. if. type_jthrow_-:'U0' do. smoutput ' foo caught ',type_jthrow_ else. throw. end. end. end.
)
bar=: baz [ smoutput bind ' bar'
baz=: monad define
smoutput ' baz' type_jthrow_=: 'U',":y throw.
)</lang>
Example use: <lang j> main main
foo
bar
baz
foo caught U0
bar
baz
main caught U1</lang>
Java
Methods that may throw an exception (or that call a method
that may throw an exception that it does not catch)
must explicitly declare that they can throw such an exception
(or a superclass thereof), unless they are unchecked exceptions
(subclasses of RuntimeException or Error):
<lang java>class U0 extends Exception { }
class U1 extends Exception { }
public class ExceptionsTest {
public static void foo() throws U1 {
for (int i = 0; i <= 1; i++) {
try {
bar(i);
} catch (U0 e) {
System.out.println("Function foo caught exception U0");
}
}
}
public static void bar(int i) throws U0, U1 {
baz(i); // Nest those calls
}
public static void baz(int i) throws U0, U1 {
if (i == 0)
throw new U0();
else
throw new U1();
}
public static void main(String[] args) throws U1 {
foo();
}
}</lang>
- Output:
Function foo caught exception U0 Exception in thread "main" U1 at ExceptionsTest.baz(ExceptionsTest.java:23) at ExceptionsTest.bar(ExceptionsTest.java:16) at ExceptionsTest.foo(ExceptionsTest.java:8) at ExceptionsTest.main(ExceptionsTest.java:27)
The first line of the output is generated from catching the U0 exception in function foo.
Uncaught exceptions give information showing where the exception originated through the nested function calls together with the name of the uncaught exception, (U1) to stderr, then quit the running program.
JavaScript
except for the print() function
The callee.name property, and the catch(e if ...) statement are Mozilla JavaScript extensions.
<lang javascript>function U() {} U.prototype.toString = function(){return this.className;}
function U0() {
this.className = arguments.callee.name;
} U0.prototype = new U();
function U1() {
this.className = arguments.callee.name;
} U1.prototype = new U();
function foo() {
for (var i = 1; i <= 2; i++) {
try {
bar();
}
catch(e if e instanceof U0) {
print("caught exception " + e);
}
}
}
function bar() {
baz();
}
function baz() {
// during the first call, redefine the function for subsequent calls
baz = function() {throw(new U1());}
throw(new U0());
}
foo();</lang>
- Output:
from Rhino
caught exception U0 js: "nested_calls.js", line 31: exception from uncaught JavaScript throw: U1
- Output:
from SpiderMonkey
caught exception U0 uncaught exception: U1
jq
<lang jq># n is assumed to be the number of times baz has been previously called: def baz(n):
if n==0 then error("U0")
elif n==1 then error("U1")
else "Goodbye"
end;
def bar(n): baz(n);
def foo:
(try bar(0) catch if . == "U0" then "We caught U0" else error(.) end), (try bar(1) catch if . == "U0" then "We caught U0" else error(.) end);
foo</lang>
- Output:
$ jq -n -f Catch_an_exception_thrown_in_a_nested_call.jq "We caught U0" jq: error: U1
Julia
<lang julia>struct U0 <: Exception end struct U1 <: Exception end
function foo()
for i in 1:2
try
bar()
catch err
if isa(err, U0) println("catched U0")
else rethrow(err) end
end
end
end
function bar()
baz()
end
function baz()
if isdefined(:_called) && _called
throw(U1())
else
global _called = true
throw(U0())
end
end
foo()</lang>
- Output:
catched U0 LoadError: U1() while loading /home/giovanni/documents/workspace/julia/Rosetta-Julia/src/Catch_an_exception_thrown_in_a_nested_call.jl, in expression starting on line 31 in foo at Rosetta-Julia/src/Catch_an_exception_thrown_in_a_nested_call.jl:10 in baz at Rosetta-Julia/src/Catch_an_exception_thrown_in_a_nested_call.jl:24
Kotlin
<lang scala>// version 1.0.6
class U0 : Throwable("U0 occurred") class U1 : Throwable("U1 occurred")
fun foo() {
for (i in 1..2) {
try {
bar(i)
} catch(e: U0) {
println(e.message)
}
}
}
fun bar(i: Int) {
baz(i)
}
fun baz(i: Int) {
when (i) {
1 -> throw U0()
2 -> throw U1()
}
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
foo()
}</lang>
- Output:
U0 occurred
Exception in thread "main" U1: U1 occurred
at ExceptionsKt.baz(exceptions.kt:23)
at ExceptionsKt.bar(exceptions.kt:17)
at ExceptionsKt.foo(exceptions.kt:9)
at ExceptionsKt.main(exceptions.kt:28)
langur
Exceptions in langur are hashes that are guaranteed to always contain certain fields.
There is no explicit try block. A catch implicitly wraps the instructions preceding it within a block into a try block.
Prior to 0.7, you would use .err instead of _err for an implicit exception variable.
<lang langur>val .U0 = h{"msg": "U0"} val .U1 = h{"msg": "U1"}
val .baz = f(.i) throw if(.i==0: .U0; .U1) val .bar = f(.i) .baz(.i)
val .foo = f() {
for .i in [0, 1] {
.bar(.i)
catch if _err["msg"] == .U0["msg"] {
writeln "caught .U0 in .foo()"
} else {
throw
}
}
}
.foo()</lang>
- Output:
caught .U0 in .foo() VM Errors general: U1 (.baz)
Lasso
Lasso currently does not currently have a try mechanic — but we can easily add one like so.
<lang Lasso>define try(exception) => {
local(
gb = givenblock,
error
)
handle => {
// Only relay error if it's not the specified exception
if(#error) => {
if(#error->get(2) == #exception) => {
stdoutnl('Handled exception: '+#error->get(2))
else
stdoutnl('Throwing exception: '+#error->get(2))
fail(:#error)
}
}
}
protect => {
handle_error => {
#error = (:error_code,error_msg,error_stack)
}
#gb()
}
}
define foo => {
stdoutnl('foo')
try('U0') => { bar }
try('U0') => { bar }
}
define bar => {
stdoutnl('- bar')
baz()
}
define baz => {
stdoutnl(' - baz')
var(bazzed) ? fail('U1') | $bazzed = true
fail('U0')
}</lang>
- Output:
foo - bar - baz Handled exception: U0 - bar - baz Throwing exception: U1
- Error Stack
U1 13:2 error.lasso 38:19 Debugger 33:5 Debugger 28:20 Debugger 21:9 Debugger 18:9 Debugger 6:5 Debugger
Lua
<lang Lua>local baz_counter=1 function baz()
if baz_counter==1 then
baz_counter=baz_counter+1
error("U0",3)--3 sends it down the call stack.
elseif baz_counter==2 then
error("U1",3)--3 sends it down the call stack.
end
end
function bar()
baz()
end
function foo()
function callbar()
local no_err,result = pcall(bar)
--pcall is a protected call which catches errors.
if not no_err then
--If there are no errors, pcall returns true.
if not result:match("U0") then
--If the error is not a U0 error, rethrow it.
error(result,2)
--2 is the distance down the call stack to send
--the error. We want it to go back to the callbar() call.
end
end
end
callbar()
callbar()
end
foo() </lang> output:
lua: errorexample.lua:31: U1
stack traceback:
[C]: in function 'error'
errorexample.lua:24: in function 'callbar'
errorexample.lua:31: in function 'foo'
errorexample.lua:34: in main chunk
[C]: ?
Maple
<lang Maple>baz := proc( which )
if ( which = 0 ) then
error "U0";
else
error "U1";
end;
end proc:
bar := proc( which )
baz( which );
end proc:
foo := proc()
local i;
for i from 0 to 1 do
try
bar(i);
catch "U0":
end;
end do;
end proc:
foo();</lang>
- Output:
<lang Maple>Error, (in baz) U1</lang>
Mathematica / Wolfram Language
<lang mathematica>foo[] := Catch[ bar[1]; bar[2]; ]
bar[i_] := baz[i];
baz[i_] := Switch[i,
1, Throw["Exception U0 in baz"];, 2, Throw["Exception U1 in baz"];]</lang>
Output:
foo[] -> Exception U0 in baz
MATLAB / Octave
<lang MATLAB>function exceptionsCatchNestedCall()
function foo()
try
bar(1);
bar(2);
catch
disp(lasterror);
rethrow(lasterror);
end
end
function bar(i)
baz(i);
end
function baz(i)
switch i
case 1
error('BAZ:U0','HAHAHAH');
case 2
error('BAZ:U1','AWWWW');
otherwise
disp 'I cant do that Dave.';
end
end
foo();
end</lang>
- Output:
<lang MATLAB>>> exceptionsCatchNestedCall()
message: [1x177 char]
identifier: 'BAZ:U0'
stack: [4x1 struct]
??? Error using ==> exceptionsCatchNestedCall>baz at 21 HAHAHAH
Error in ==> exceptionsCatchNestedCall at 29
foo();</lang>
Nemerle
<lang Nemerle>using System; using System.Console;
namespace NestedExceptions {
public class U0 : Exception
{
public this() {base()}
}
public class U1 : Exception
{
public this() {base()}
}
module NestedExceptions
{
Foo () : void
{
mutable call = 0;
repeat(2) {
try {
Bar(call);
}
catch {
|e is U0 => WriteLine("Exception U0 caught.")
}
finally {
call++;
}
}
}
Bar (call : int) : void
{
Baz(call)
}
Baz (call : int) : void // throw U0() on first call, U1() on second
{
unless (call > 0) throw U0();
when (call > 0) throw U1();
}
Main () : void
{
Foo()
}
}
}</lang>
- Output:
Exception U0 caught. Unhandled Exception: NestedExceptions.U1: Exception of type 'NestedExceptions.U1' was thrown. at NestedExceptions.NestedExceptions.Baz(Int32 call) at NestedExceptions.NestedExceptions.Foo() at NestedExceptions.NestedExceptions.Main()
Nim
<lang nim>type U0 = object of Exception type U1 = object of Exception
proc baz(i) =
if i > 0: raise newException(U1, "Some error") else: raise newException(U0, "Another error")
proc bar(i) =
baz(i)
proc foo() =
for i in 0..1:
try:
bar(i)
except U0:
echo "Function foo caught exception U0"
foo()</lang>
- Output:
Function foo caught exception U0 Traceback (most recent call last) exceptionnested.nim(18) exceptionnested exceptionnested.nim(14) foo exceptionnested.nim(9) bar exceptionnested.nim(5) baz Error: unhandled exception: Some error [U1] Error: execution of an external program failed
Objective-C
<lang objc>@interface U0 : NSObject { } @end @interface U1 : NSObject { } @end @implementation U0 @end @implementation U1 @end
void foo(); void bar(int i); void baz(int i);
void foo() {
for (int i = 0; i <= 1; i++) {
@try {
bar(i);
} @catch (U0 *e) {
NSLog(@"Function foo caught exception U0");
}
}
}
void bar(int i) {
baz(i); // Nest those calls
}
void baz(int i) {
if (i == 0) @throw [U0 new]; else @throw [U1 new];
}
int main (int argc, const char * argv[]) {
@autoreleasepool {
foo();
} return 0;
}</lang>
- Output:
2011-06-03 23:11:53.871 Untitled[9968:903] Function foo caught exception U0 2011-06-03 23:11:53.878 Untitled[9968:903] *** Terminating app due to uncaught exception of class 'U1'
OCaml
Exceptions are used everywhere in OCaml, they are easy to write, and they are cheap. <lang ocaml>exception U0 exception U1
let baz i =
raise (if i = 0 then U0 else U1)
let bar i = baz i (* Nest those calls *)
let foo () =
for i = 0 to 1 do
try
bar i
with U0 ->
print_endline "Function foo caught exception U0"
done
let () = foo ()</lang>
- Output:
Function foo caught exception U0 Exception: U1.
Oforth
<lang Oforth>Exception Class new: U0 Exception Class new: U1
- baz ifZero: [ "First call" U0 throw ] else: [ "Second call" U1 throw ] ;
- bar baz ;
- foo
| e |
try: e [ 0 bar ] when: [ e isKindOf(U0) ifTrue: [ "Catched" .cr ] else: [ e throw ] ] try: e [ 1 bar ] when: [ e isKindOf(U0) ifTrue: [ "Catched" .cr ] else: [ e throw ] ] "Done" . ;</lang>
- Output:
Catched [stdin:1:3] U1 : Second call ok
Oz
Any value can be raised as an exception. In this example, we simply use atoms.
Exceptions are caught by pattern matching. <lang oz>declare
proc {Foo}
for I in 1..2 do
try
{Bar I}
catch u0 then {System.showInfo "Procedure Foo caught exception u0"}
end
end
end
proc {Bar I} {Baz I} end
proc {Baz I}
if I == 1 then
raise u0 end
else
raise u1 end
end
end
in
{Foo}</lang>
- Output:
Procedure Foo caught exception u0 %**************************************************************** %** %** Error: unhandled exception %** %** u1 %**--------------------------------------------------------------
PARI/GP
<lang parigp>call = 0;
U0() = error("x = ", 1, " should not happen!"); U1() = error("x = ", 2, " should not happen!"); baz(x) = if(x==1, U0(), x==2, U1());x; bar() = baz(call++); foo() = if(!call, iferr(bar(), E, printf("Caught exception, call=%d",call)), bar())</lang>
Output 1. call to foo():
Caught exception, call=1
Output 2. call to foo():
*** at top-level: foo()
*** ^-----
*** in function foo: ...ception, call=%d",call)),bar())
*** ^------
*** in function bar: baz(call++)
*** ^-----------
*** in function baz: if(x==1,U0(),x==2,U1());x
*** ^-------
*** in function U1: error("x = ",2," sho
*** ^--------------------
*** user error: x = 2 should not happen!
Output 3. call to foo():
3
Pascal
See Delphi
Perl
Note: Both exceptions are caught and one is re-raised rather than only one being caught. <lang perl>sub foo {
foreach (0..1) {
eval { bar($_) };
if ($@ =~ /U0/) { print "Function foo caught exception U0\n"; }
else { die; } # propagate the exception
}
}
sub bar {
baz(@_); # Nest those calls
}
sub baz {
my $i = shift; die ($i ? "U1" : "U0");
}
foo();</lang>
- Output:
Function foo caught exception U0 U1 at exceptionsnested.pl line 15. ...propagated at exceptionsnested.pl line 5.
Phix
Phix does not have "exception classes" as such, instead you can just throw any string (on it's own) or any integer, optionally
with any (deeply nested) user_data that you like. All exceptions are always caught, however rethrowing is trivial.
As per the discussion for Go, I should say that "bar(); bar();" cannot work - if you catch an exception from the first call,
control resumes within the catch handler, with no way to invoke that second bar(). But a simple loop does the trick.
constant U0 = 0, U1 = 1 integer count = 0 procedure baz() count += 1 if count=1 then throw(U0,{{"any",{{"thing"},"you"}},"like"}) else throw(U1) end if end procedure procedure bar() baz() end procedure procedure foo() for i=1 to 2 do try bar() catch e if e[E_CODE]=U0 then ?e[E_USER] else throw(e) -- (terminates) end if end try puts(1,"still running...\n") end for puts(1,"not still running...\n") end procedure foo()
- Output:
{{"any",{{"thing"},"you"}},"like"}
still running...
C:\Program Files (x86)\Phix\test.exw:27 in procedure foo()
unhandled exception
i = 2
e = {1,7533630,11,847,"baz","test.exw","C:\\Program Files (x86)\\Phix\\"}
... called from C:\Program Files (x86)\Phix\test.exw:35
Global & Local Variables
--> see C:\Program Files (x86)\Phix\ex.err
Press Enter...
Note that, unlike Python, the call stack from foo() to baz() has gone, for good, however e[E_LINE] is 11, indicating that unhandled exception originated from line 11 (ie "throw(U1)"), and if you need any more help than that, you'll have to arrange for it to end up in e[E_USER] manually.
PicoLisp
<lang PicoLisp>(de foo ()
(for Tag '(U0 U1)
(catch 'U0
(bar Tag) ) ) )
(de bar (Tag)
(baz Tag) )
(de baz (Tag)
(throw Tag) )
(mapc trace '(foo bar baz)) (foo)</lang>
- Output:
foo : bar : U0 baz : U0 bar : U1 baz : U1 [x:13] !? (throw Tag) U1 -- Tag not found ? # Debug prompt
PL/I
<lang PL/I> /* Exceptions: Catch an exception thrown in a nested call */ test: proc options (main);
/* 8/1/2011 */ declare (m, n) fixed initial (2); declare (U0, U1) condition;
foo: procedure () returns (fixed);
on condition(U0) snap begin;
put list ('Raised condition U0 in function <bar>.'); put skip;
end;
m = bar();
m = bar();
return (m);
end foo;
bar: procedure () returns (fixed);
n = n + 1; return (baz()); return (n);
end bar; baz: procedure () returns (fixed);
declare first bit(1) static initial ('1'b);
n = n + 1;
if first then do; first = '0'b; signal condition(U0); end;
else signal condition(U1);
return (n);
end baz;
m = foo();
end test; </lang>
DESCRIPTION OF EXECUTION:
Function FOO is invoked.
FOO invokes BAR. BAR invoked BAZ.
In BAZ, exception UO is raised, and is handled in FOO,
which outputs a message and a traceback is produced.
Upon return to BAZ, BAZ terminates, and control returns to FOO.
In FOO, BAR is invoked a second time, which in turn invokes BAZ.
This (second) time that BAZ is invoked, the exception U1 is raised.
As this exception is defined in the outer procedure TEST,
a diagnostic and traceback are produced, and execution resumes
in BAZ, returns to BAR, and then to FOO.
Finally, a return is made to TEST and the program terminates.
OUTPUT:
CONDITION condition was raised
At offset +000000E0 in procedure with entry FOO
From offset +0000007C in procedure with entry TEST
Raised condition U0 in function <bar>.
IBM0400I ONCODE=0500 The CONDITION condition was raised
by a SIGNAL statement and the condition U1 was signaled.
At offset +0000010D in procedure with entry FOO
Python
There is no extra syntax to add to functions and/or methods such as bar, to say what exceptions they may raise or pass through them: <lang python>class U0(Exception): pass class U1(Exception): pass
def foo():
for i in range(2):
try:
bar(i)
except U0:
print("Function foo caught exception U0")
def bar(i):
baz(i) # Nest those calls
def baz(i):
raise U1 if i else U0
foo()</lang>
- Output:
Function foo caught exception U0
Traceback (most recent call last):
File "C:/Paddy3118/Exceptions_Through_Nested_Calls.py", line 17, in <module>
foo()
File "C:/Paddy3118/Exceptions_Through_Nested_Calls.py", line 7, in foo
bar(i)
File "C:/Paddy3118/Exceptions_Through_Nested_Calls.py", line 12, in bar
baz(i) # Nest those calls
File "C:/Paddy3118/Exceptions_Through_Nested_Calls.py", line 15, in baz
raise U1 if i else U0
U1
The first line of the output is generated from catching the U0 exception in function foo.
Uncaught exceptions give information showing where the exception originated through the nested function calls together with the name of the uncaught exception, (U1) to stderr, then quit the running program.
Quackery
<lang Quackery> [ this ] is U0
[ this ] is U1
[ 0 = iff U0 else U1 message put bail ] is baz ( n --> )
[ baz ] is bar ( n --> )
[ 2 times
[ i^
1 backup
bar
bailed if
[ message share
U0 oats iff
[ say "Exception U0 raised." cr
echostack
$ "Press enter to continue"
input drop
message release
drop ]
else [ drop bail ] ] ] ] is foo</lang>
- Output:
Testing in the Quackery shell, first with trapping the exception U1, and then without trapping the exception U1 (this is bad practice). Before invoking foo we put some arbitrary data on the stack to show if and how it is affected.
/O> 111 222 333
...
Stack: 111 222 333
/O> 0 backup foo bailed if [ message take echo ]
...
Exception U0 raised.
Stack: 111 222 333 0
Press enter to continue
U1
Stack: 111 222 333
/O> foo
...
Exception U0 raised.
Stack: 111 222 333 0
Press enter to continue
Problem: Cannot remove an immovable item.
Quackery Stack: 111 222 333
Return stack: {[...] 0} {quackery 1} {[...] 11} {shell 5} {quackery 1} {[...] 0} {foo 2} {times 6}
{[...] 10} {[...] 6} {[...] 7} {[...] 1} {bail 1}
/O>
Stack empty.
R
The counter for the number of calls to baz is kept in the global environment for simplicity, but you could hide it in your own environment. See ?new.env and ?get. <lang r> number_of_calls_to_baz <- 0
foo <- function() {
for(i in 1:2) tryCatch(bar())
}
bar <- function() baz()
baz <- function() {
e <- simpleError(ifelse(number_of_calls_to_baz > 0, "U1", "U0"))
assign("number_of_calls_to_baz", number_of_calls_to_baz + 1, envir=globalenv())
stop(e)
} </lang> Example Usage: <lang r> foo() # Error: U0 traceback() </lang>
- Output:
6: stop(e) at file.r#11 5: baz() 4: bar() 3: tryCatchList(expr, classes, parentenv, handlers) 2: tryCatch(bar()) at file.r#4 1: foo()
Racket
<lang racket>
- lang racket
(define-struct (exn:U0 exn) ()) (define-struct (exn:U1 exn) ())
(define (foo)
(for ([i 2])
(with-handlers ([exn:U0? (λ(_) (displayln "Function foo caught exception U0"))])
(bar i))))
(define (bar i)
(baz i))
(define (baz i)
(if (= i 0)
(raise (make-exn:U0 "failed 0" (current-continuation-marks)))
(raise (make-exn:U1 "failed 1" (current-continuation-marks)))))
(foo) </lang>
- Output:
<lang racket> Function foo caught exception U0 . . failed 1 </lang>
Raku
(formerly Perl 6)
<lang perl6>sub foo() {
for 0..1 -> $i {
bar $i;
CATCH {
when /U0/ { say "Function foo caught exception U0" }
}
}
}
sub bar($i) { baz $i }
sub baz($i) { die "U$i" }
foo;</lang>
- Output:
Function foo caught exception U0 U1 in sub baz at catch:12 in sub bar at catch:10 in sub foo at catch:4 in block at catch:14
REXX
While the REXX language doesn't have a throw capability pe se, it does have the ability to catch exceptions (by label).
This type of exception handling (in REXX) has its limitation
(the label is known global to the program, but not to external subroutines).
<lang rexx>/*REXX program creates two exceptions and demonstrates how to handle (catch) them. */
call foo /*invoke the FOO function (below). */
say 'The REXX mainline program has completed.' /*indicate that Elroy was here. */
exit /*stick a fork in it, we're all done. */
/*──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────*/
foo: call bar; call bar /*invoke BAR function twice. */
return 0 /*return a zero to the invoker. */
/*the 1st U0 in REXX program is used.*/
U0: say 'exception U0 caught in FOO' /*handle the U0 exception. */
return -2 /*return to the invoker. */
/*──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────*/ bar: call baz /*have BAR function invoke BAZ function*/
return 0 /*return a zero to the invoker. */
/*──────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────────*/ baz: if symbol('BAZ#')=='LIT' then baz#=0 /*initialize the first BAZ invocation #*/
baz# = baz#+1 /*bump the BAZ invocation number by 1. */
if baz#==1 then signal U0 /*if first invocation, then raise U0 */
if baz#==2 then signal U1 /* " second " " " U1 */
return 0 /*return a 0 (zero) to the invoker.*/
/* [↓] this U0 subroutine is ignored.*/
U0: return -1 /*handle exception if not caught. */ U1: return -1 /* " " " " " */</lang> output
exception U0 caught in FOO The REXX mainline program has completed.
Ruby
<lang ruby>def foo
2.times do |i|
begin
bar(i)
rescue U0
$stderr.puts "captured exception U0"
end
end
end
def bar(i)
baz(i)
end
def baz(i)
raise i == 0 ? U0 : U1
end
class U0 < StandardError; end
class U1 < StandardError; end
foo</lang> The first call to foo causes the U0 exception. It gets rescued. The second call results in a U1 exception which is not rescued, so the program dumps a stacktrace and exits.
- Output:
C:>ruby exception.rb
captured exception U0
exception.rb:16:in `baz': U1 (U1)
from exception.rb:12:in `bar'
from exception.rb:4:in `block in foo'
from exception.rb:2:in `times'
from exception.rb:2:in `foo'
from exception.rb:23:in `<main>'
Rust
Rust has panics, which are similar to exceptions in that they default to unwinding the stack and the unwinding can be caught. However, panics can be configured to simply abort the program and thus cannot be guaranteed to be catchable. Panics should only be used for situations which are truly unexpected. It is prefered to return an Option or Result when a function can fail. Result<T, U> is an enum (or sum type) with variants Ok(T) and Err(U), representing a success value or failure value. main can return a Result, in which case the debug representation of the error will be shown.
<lang Rust>#[derive(Debug)]
enum U {
U0(i32), U1(String),
}
fn baz(i: u8) -> Result<(), U> {
match i {
0 => Err(U::U0(42)),
1 => Err(U::U1("This will be returned from main".into())),
_ => Ok(()),
}
}
fn bar(i: u8) -> Result<(), U> {
baz(i)
}
fn foo() -> Result<(), U> {
for i in 0..2 {
match bar(i) {
Ok(()) => {},
Err(U::U0(n)) => eprintln!("Caught U0 in foo: {}", n),
Err(e) => return Err(e),
}
}
Ok(())
}
fn main() -> Result<(), U> {
foo()
}</lang>
- Output:
Caught U0 in foo: 42
Error: U1("This will be returned from main")
Scala
<lang Scala>object ExceptionsTest extends App {
class U0 extends Exception class U1 extends Exception
def foo {
for (i <- 0 to 1)
try {
bar(i)
} catch { case e: U0 => println("Function foo caught exception U0") }
}
def bar(i: Int) {
def baz(i: Int) = { if (i == 0) throw new U0 else throw new U1 }
baz(i) // Nest those calls }
foo
} </lang> Exception U0 is caught, exception U1 is caught and re-thrown. Program execution is terminated as the U1 exception is not caught when thrown the second time.
Seed7
When an exception is not handled the program is terminated and a stack trace is written. <lang seed7>$ include "seed7_05.s7i";
const EXCEPTION: U0 is enumlit; const EXCEPTION: U1 is enumlit;
const proc: baz (in integer: num) is func
begin
if num = 1 then
raise U0;
else
raise U1;
end if;
end func;
const proc: bar (in integer: num) is func
begin baz(num); end func;
const proc: foo is func
local
var integer: num is 0;
begin
for num range 1 to 2 do
block
bar(num);
exception
catch U0: writeln("U0 catched");
end block;
end for;
end func;
const proc: main is func
begin foo; end func;</lang>
- Output:
U0 catched
*** Uncaught EXCEPTION U1 raised with
{raise U1 }
Stack:
in raise (ref EXCEPTION: anException) at /media/disk2_460GiB/home/tm/seed7_5/prg/seed7_05.s7i(322)
in baz (val integer: num) at rosetta/catchAnExceptionThrownInANestedCall.sd7(11)
in bar (val integer: num) at rosetta/catchAnExceptionThrownInANestedCall.sd7(17)
in foo at rosetta/catchAnExceptionThrownInANestedCall.sd7(26)
in main at rosetta/catchAnExceptionThrownInANestedCall.sd7(35)
Sidef
<lang ruby>func baz(i) { die "U#{i}" }; func bar(i) { baz(i) };
func foo {
[0, 1].each { |i|
try { bar(i) }
catch { |_, msg|
msg ~~ /^U0/ ? say "Function foo() caught exception U0"
: die msg; # re-raise the exception
};
}
}
foo();</lang>
- Output:
Function foo() caught exception U0 U1 at test.sf line 1. at test.sf line 9.
Smalltalk
<lang smalltalk> Exception subclass: #U0. Exception subclass: #U1.
Object subclass: Foo [
bazCount := 0.
foo
[2 timesRepeat:
[ "==>" [self bar] "<=="
on: U0
do:
[:sig |
'Call to bar was aborted by exception U0' printNl.
sig return]]]
bar
[self baz]
baz
[bazCount := bazCount + 1.
bazCount = 1 ifTrue: [U0 new signal].
bazCount = 2 ifTrue: [U1 new signal].
"Thirds time's a charm..."]
] </lang>
Running the code: <lang Smalltalk> st> Foo new foo 'Call to bar was aborted by exception U0' Object: Foo new "<-0x4c9a7960>" error: An exception has occurred U1(Exception)>>signal (ExcHandling.st:254) Foo>>baz (catch_exception.st:32) Foo>>bar (catch_exception.st:27) optimized [] in Foo>>foo (catch_exception.st:19) BlockClosure>>on:do: (BlkClosure.st:193) Foo>>foo (catch_exception.st:20) UndefinedObject>>executeStatements (a String:1) nil </lang>
Explanation:
Inside the foo method, inside the 2 timesRepeat: block, there is a small
block [self bar] which simply calls bar. This block is sent
the #on:do: message, which will evaluate the block and catch
any mentioned exception. First time this block is evaluated, it results in
a U0 exception, which we catch and handle by printing a message and
returning nil in place of whatever the block would have
returned. The second time the block is evaluated, it results in a U1
exception, which we do not catch, so it passes to the default handler
which prints a trace and exits. The second line of the trace
U1(Exception)>>signal shows that this was a U1 exception.
Exception handling in Smalltalk is exceptional, and the exception handler
(the following do: block) can do quite some cool stuff, like retrying the
block, retrying with a different block, and even resuming evaluation at the
point where the exception was raised (baz in this example) having U0
new signal return some value.
Swift
<lang swift>enum MyException : ErrorType {
case U0 case U1
}
func foo() throws {
for i in 0 ... 1 {
do {
try bar(i)
} catch MyException.U0 {
print("Function foo caught exception U0")
}
}
}
func bar(i: Int) throws {
try baz(i) // Nest those calls
}
func baz(i: Int) throws {
if i == 0 {
throw MyException.U0
} else {
throw MyException.U1
}
}
try foo()</lang>
- Output:
Function foo caught exception U0 fatal error: Error raised at top level: MyApp.MyException.U1: file /Library/Caches/com.apple.xbs/Sources/swiftlang/swiftlang-700.0.45/src/swift/stdlib/public/core/ErrorType.swift, line 47
Tcl
Note: Both exceptions are caught and one is re-raised rather than only one being caught.
<lang tcl>package require Tcl 8.5
proc foo {} {
set code [catch {bar} ex options]
if {$code == 1} {
switch -exact -- $ex {
U0 {puts "caught exception U0"}
default {return -options $options $ex ;# re-raise exception}
}
}
}
proc bar {} {baz}
- create an alias to pass the initial exception U0 to the baz proc
interp alias {} baz {} _baz U0
proc _baz {exception} {
# re-set the alias so subsequent invocations will use exception U1
interp alias {} baz {} _baz U1
# throw
return -code error $exception
}
foo foo</lang>
- Output:
$ tclsh85 exceptions.tcl
caught exception U0
U1
while executing
"baz"
(procedure "bar" line 1)
invoked from within
"bar"
(procedure "foo" line 2)
invoked from within
"foo"
(file "exceptions.tcl" line 26)
TXR
<lang txr>@(defex u0) @(defex u1) @(define baz (x)) @ (cases) @ (bind x "0") @ (throw u0 "text0") @ (or) @ (bind x "1") @ (throw u1 "text1") @ (end) @(end) @(define bar (x)) @ (baz x) @(end) @(define foo ()) @ (next :list @'("0" "1")) @ (collect) @num @ (try) @ (bar num) @ (catch u0 (arg)) @ (output) caught u0: @arg @ (end) @ (end) @ (end) @(end) @(foo)</lang>
- Run:
$ txr except.txr caught u0: text0 txr: unhandled exception of type u1: txr: text1 txr: during evaluation at exceptions.txr:9 of form (throw u1 "text1") $ echo $? 1
Ursala
Foo calls bar, and bar calls baz. Normal termination of bar is bypassed if baz raises an exception. The exception is caught or not by foo. <lang Ursala>#import std
baz =
~&?(
~&h?(
:/'baz succeeded with this input:',
<'baz threw a user-defined empty string exception','U1'>!%),
<'baz threw a user-defined empty file exception','U0'>!%)
bar = :/'bar received this result from normal termination of baz:'+ baz
- executable&
foo =
guard(
:/'foo received this result from normal termination of bar:'+ bar, 'U0'?=z/~& :/'foo caught an exception with this error message:')</lang>
Note that the definition of bar includes no conditional (?) or exception handling operators, and is written without regard for any exceptions. Here is an example bash session:
$ echo "valid input" | foo foo received this result from normal termination of bar: bar received this result from normal termination of baz: baz succeeded with this input: valid input $ foo < /dev/null baz threw a user-defined empty file exception U0 $ echo "" | foo foo caught an exception with this error message: baz threw a user-defined empty string exception U1
Visual Basic .NET
<lang vbnet>Class U0
Inherits Exception
End Class
Class U1
Inherits Exception
End Class
Module Program
Sub Main()
Foo()
End Sub
Sub Foo()
Try
Bar()
Bar()
Catch ex As U0
Console.WriteLine(ex.GetType.Name & " caught.")
End Try
End Sub
Sub Bar()
Baz()
End Sub
Sub Baz()
' Static local variable is persisted between calls of the method and is initialized only once.
Static firstCall As Boolean = True
If firstCall Then
firstCall = False
Throw New U0()
Else
Throw New U1()
End If
End Sub
End Module</lang>
Control passes to the Catch block after U0 is thrown, and so the second call to Bar() is not made.
- Output:
U0 caught.
To prevent this, a loop can be used to run the entire Try statement twice:
<lang vbnet> Sub Foo()
For i = 1 To 2
Try
Bar()
Catch ex As U0
Console.WriteLine(ex.GetType().Name & " caught.")
End Try
Next
End Sub</lang>
- Output:
U0 caught. Unhandled Exception: U1: Exception of type 'U1' was thrown. at Program.Baz() in Program.vb:line 34 at Program.Bar() in Program.vb:line 25 at Program.Foo() in Program.vb:line 17 at Program.Main() in Program.vb:line 11
Wren
As explained in the Exceptions#Wren task, Wren doesn't have exceptions as such but we can simulate them by trying to run code which may cause an error in a fiber and then capturing any error that does occur.
We can use that approach here, re-throwing the second (uncaught) exception so that it terminates the script. <lang ecmascript>var U0 = "U0" var U1 = "U1"
var bazCalled = 0
var baz = Fn.new {
bazCalled = bazCalled + 1 Fiber.abort( (bazCalled == 1) ? U0 : U1 )
}
var bar = Fn.new {
baz.call()
}
var foo = Fn.new {
for (i in 1..2) {
var f = Fiber.new { bar.call() }
f.try()
var err = f.error
if (err == U0) {
System.print("Caught exception %(err)")
} else if (err == U1) {
Fiber.abort("Uncaught exception %(err) rethrown") // re-throw
}
}
}
foo.call()</lang>
- Output:
Caught exception U0 Uncaught exception U1 rethrown [./exceptions_nested line 23] in new(_) block argument [./exceptions_nested line 28] in (script)
zkl
<lang zkl>class U0(Exception.Exception){fcn init{Exception.init("U0")}} class U1(Exception.Exception){fcn init{Exception.init("U1")}}
fcn foo{try{bar(U0)}catch(U0){} bar(U1)} fcn bar(e){baz(e)} fcn baz(e){throw(e)} foo()</lang>
- Output:
Stack trace for VM#1 (): Cmd.baz addr:2 args(1) reg(0) Cmd.bar addr:6 args(1) reg(0) R Cmd.foo addr:34 args(0) reg(0) R Cmd.__constructor@foo addr:5 args(0) reg(0) R startup.__constructor addr:2242 args(0) reg(1) ER startup.__constructor addr:2178 args(0) reg(22) Exception thrown: U1(An Exception)
foo catches exception U0 and ignores it. It calls bar with the exception to throw. bar in turn calls baz with that exception, which it throws. A stack trace is printed when an uncaught exception bubbles up to the VM (which handles all catchable exceptions).
- Programming Tasks
- Control Structures
- GUISS/Omit
- M4/Omit
- Retro/Omit
- 11l
- Ada
- Aime
- ALGOL 68
- APL
- AutoHotkey
- Autohotkey examples needing attention
- Examples needing attention
- BBC BASIC
- C
- C sharp
- C++
- Clojure
- Common Lisp
- Crystal
- D
- Delphi
- DWScript
- Dyalect
- EchoLisp
- EGL
- EGL examples needing attention
- Eiffel
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- Erlang
- Factor
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