Classes
You are encouraged to solve this task according to the task description, using any language you may know.
In object-oriented programming class is a set (a transitive closure) of types bound by the relation of inheritance. It is said that all types derived from some base type T and the type T itself form a class T.
The first type T from the class T sometimes is called the root type of the class.
A class of types itself, as a type, has the values and operations of its own. The operations of are usually called methods of the root type. Both operations and values are called polymorphic.
A polymorphic operation (method) selects an implementation depending on the actual specific type of the polymorphic argument.
The action of choice the type-specific implementation of a polymorphic operation is called dispatch. Correspondingly, polymorphic operations are often called dispatching or virtual. Operations with multiple arguments and/or the results of the class are called multi-methods. A further generalization of is the operation with arguments and/or results from different classes.
- single-dispatch languages are those that allow only one argument or result to control the dispatch. Usually it is the first parameter, often hidden, so that a prefix notation x.f() is used instead of mathematical f(x).
- multiple-dispatch languages allow many arguments and/or results to control the dispatch.
A polymorphic value has a type tag indicating its specific type from the class and the corresponding specific value of that type.
This type is sometimes called the most specific type of a [polymorphic] value.
The type tag of the value is used in order to resolve the dispatch.
The set of polymorphic values of a class is a transitive closure of the sets of values of all types from that class.
In many OO languages the type of the class of T and T itself are considered equivalent. In some languages they are distinct (like in Ada). When class T and T are equivalent, there is no way to distinguish polymorphic and specific values.
- Task
Create a basic class with a method, a constructor, an instance variable and how to instantiate it.
11l
T MyType
Int public_variable // member variable = instance variable
. Int private_variable
F () // constructor
.private_variable = 0
F someMethod() // member function = method
.private_variable = 1
.public_variable = 10
Note that member functions in 11l by default are not polymorphic; if you want a polymorphic member function, you have to mark it as virtual. Example:
T MyType
F.virtual.new someMethod() -> N // this is polymorphic
print()
ActionScript
package {
public class MyClass {
private var myVariable:int; // Note: instance variables are usually "private"
/**
* The constructor
*/
public function MyClass() {
// creates a new instance
}
/**
* A method
*/
public function someMethod():void {
this.myVariable = 1; // Note: "this." is optional
// myVariable = 1; works also
}
}
}
Ada
Class is used in many languages to provide both encapsulation, or grouping of data and actions, and type definition. Ada packages provide encapsulation or grouping while type definitions are done using the type reserved word. Types participating in inheritance are named tagged record types.
A package specification has the following form:
package My_Package is
type My_Type is tagged private;
procedure Some_Procedure(Item : out My_Type);
function Set(Value : in Integer) return My_Type;
private
type My_Type is tagged record
Variable : Integer := -12;
end record;
end My_Package;
The type declaration at the top of the package gives public visibility to the private tagged type My_Type. Since My_Type is declared to be private, the public has no visibility of its structure. The type must be treated as a black box. The private section of the package specification includes the actual tagged record definition. Note that the data member Variable is initialized to -12. This corresponds to a default constructor for the type.
The package body must contain the implementation of the procedures and functions declared in the package specification.
package body My_Package is
procedure Some_Procedure(Item : out My_Type) is
begin
Item := 2 * Item;
end Some_Procedure;
function Set(Value : Integer) return My_Type is
Temp : My_Type;
begin
Temp.Variable := Value;
return Temp;
end Set;
end My_Package;
The Set function acts as a conversion constructor for My_Type.
An instance is typically created outside the package:
with My_Package; use My_Package;
procedure Main is
Foo : My_Type; -- Foo is created and initialized to -12
begin
Some_Procedure(Foo); -- Foo is doubled
Foo := Set(2007); -- Foo.Variable is set to 2007
end Main;
Aikido
Aikido provides classes with single inheritance and multiple interface implementation. A class takes a set of constructor arguments and provides a set of public functions, operators, classes, monitors and threads.
class Circle (radius, x, y) extends Shape (x, y) implements Drawable {
var myvec = new Vector (x, y)
public function draw() {
// draw the circle
}
}
ALGOL 68
The following code is experimental. Basically ALGOL 68 is not object oriented, so the task to create (and use of) objects is tedious due to the lack of certain constructs, especially the lack of OO syntactic sugar.
For further details:
Other examples of this experimental approach are located at pages: Life in two dimensions, Playing Cards and Stack.
MODE MYDATA = STRUCT(
INT name1
);
STRUCT(
INT name2,
PROC (REF MYDATA)REF MYDATA new,
PROC (REF MYDATA)VOID init,
PROC (REF MYDATA)VOID some method
) class my data;
class my data := (
# name2 := # 2, # Class attribute #
# PROC new := # (REF MYDATA new)REF MYDATA:(
(init OF class my data)(new);
new
),
# PROC init := # (REF MYDATA self)VOID:(
""" Constructor (Technically an initializer rather than a true 'constructor') """;
name1 OF self := 0 # Instance attribute #
),
# PROC some method := # (REF MYDATA self)VOID:(
""" Method """;
name1 OF self := 1;
name2 OF class my data := 3
)
);
# class name, invoked as a function is the constructor syntax #
REF MYDATA my data = (new OF class my data)(LOC MYDATA);
MODE GENDEROPT = UNION(STRING, VOID);
MODE AGEOPT = UNION(INT, VOID);
MODE MYOTHERDATA = STRUCT(
STRING name,
GENDEROPT gender,
AGEOPT age
);
STRUCT (
INT count,
PROC (REF MYOTHERDATA, STRING, GENDEROPT, AGEOPT)REF MYOTHERDATA new,
PROC (REF MYOTHERDATA, STRING, GENDEROPT, AGEOPT)VOID init,
PROC (REF MYOTHERDATA)VOID del
) class my other data;
class my other data := (
# count := # 0, # Population of "(init OF class my other data)" objects #
# PROC new := # (REF MYOTHERDATA new, STRING name, GENDEROPT gender, AGEOPT age)REF MYOTHERDATA:(
(init OF class my other data)(new, name, gender, age);
new
),
# PROC init := # (REF MYOTHERDATA self, STRING name, GENDEROPT gender, AGEOPT age)VOID:(
""" One initializer required, others are optional (with different defaults) """;
count OF class my other data +:= 1;
name OF self := name;
gender OF self := gender;
CASE gender OF self IN
(VOID):gender OF self := "Male"
ESAC;
age OF self := age
),
# PROC del := # (REF MYOTHERDATA self)VOID:(
count OF class my other data -:= 1
)
);
PROC attribute error := STRING: error char; # mend the error with the "error char" #
# Allocate the instance from HEAP #
REF MYOTHERDATA person1 = (new OF class my other data)(HEAP MYOTHERDATA, "John", EMPTY, EMPTY);
print (((name OF person1), ": ",
(gender OF person1|(STRING gender):gender|attribute error), " ")); # "John Male" #
print (((age OF person1|(INT age):age|attribute error), new line)); # Raises AttributeError exception! #
# Allocate the instance from LOC (stack) #
REF MYOTHERDATA person2 = (new OF class my other data)(LOC MYOTHERDATA, "Jane", "Female", 23);
print (((name OF person2), ": ",
(gender OF person2|(STRING gender):gender|attribute error), " "));
print (((age OF person2|(INT age):age|attribute error), new line)) # "Jane Female 23" #
- Output:
John: Male * Jane: Female +23
AmigaE
OBJECT a_class
varA, varP
ENDOBJECT
-> this could be used like a constructor
PROC init() OF a_class
self.varP := 10
self.varA := 2
ENDPROC
-> the special proc end() is for destructor
PROC end() OF a_class
-> nothing to do here...
ENDPROC
-> a not so useful getter
PROC getP() OF a_class IS self.varP
PROC main()
DEF obj : PTR TO a_class
NEW obj.init()
WriteF('\d\n', obj.varA) -> this can be done, while
-> varP can't be accessed directly
WriteF('\d\n', obj.varP) -> or
WriteF('\d\n', obj.getP())
END obj
ENDPROC
Arturo
; defining a custom type
define :person [ ; define a new custom type "Person"
name ; with fields: name, surname, age
surname
age
][
; with custom post-construction initializer
init: [
this\name: capitalize this\name
]
; custom print function
print: [
render "NAME: |this\name|, SURNAME: |this\surname|, AGE: |this\age|"
]
; custom comparison operator
compare: 'age
]
; create a method for our custom type
sayHello: function [this][
ensure -> is? :person this
print ["Hello" this\name]
]
; create new objects of our custom type
a: to :person ["John" "Doe" 34] ; let's create 2 "Person"s
b: to :person ["jane" "Doe" 33] ; and another one
; call pseudo-inner method
sayHello a ; Hello John
sayHello b ; Hello Jane
; access object fields
print ["The first person's name is:" a\name] ; The first person's name is: John
print ["The second person's name is:" b\name] ; The second person's name is: Jane
; changing object fields
a\name: "Bob"
sayHello a ; Hello Bob
; verifying object type
print type a ; :person
print is? :person a ; true
; printing objects
print a ; NAME: John, SURNAME: Doe, AGE: 34
; sorting user objects (using custom comparator)
sort @[a b] ; Jane..., John...
sort.descending @[a b] ; John..., Jane...
- Output:
Hello John Hello Jane The first person's name is: John The second person's name is: Jane Hello Bob :person true NAME: Bob, SURNAME: Doe, AGE: 34
AutoHotkey
AutoHotkey_L is prototype-based. However, for convenience, class-syntax may be used to create a base object.
obj := new MyClass
obj.WhenCreated()
class MyClass {
; Instance Variable #1
time := A_Hour ":" A_Min ":" A_Sec
; Constructor
__New() {
MsgBox, % "Constructing new object of type: " this.__Class
FormatTime, date, , MM/dd/yyyy
; Instance Variable #2
this.date := date
}
; Method
WhenCreated() {
MsgBox, % "Object created at " this.time " on " this.date
}
}
BASIC
BaCon
This is an advanced feature to extend the the compiler we can also compile using g++ or clang++ using PRAGMA
PRAGMA COMPILER g++
PRAGMA OPTIONS -Wno-write-strings -Wno-pointer-arith -fpermissive
OPTION PARSE FALSE
'---The class does the declaring for you
CLASS Books
public:
const char* title;
const char* author;
const char* subject;
int book_id;
END CLASS
'---pointer to an object declaration (we use a class called Books)
DECLARE Book1 TYPE Books
'--- the correct syntax for class
Book1 = Books()
'--- initialize the strings const char* in c++
Book1.title = "C++ Programming to bacon "
Book1.author = "anyone"
Book1.subject ="RECORD Tutorial"
Book1.book_id = 1234567
PRINT "Book title : " ,Book1.title FORMAT "%s%s\n"
PRINT "Book author : ", Book1.author FORMAT "%s%s\n"
PRINT "Book subject : ", Book1.subject FORMAT "%s%s\n"
PRINT "Book book_id : ", Book1.book_id FORMAT "%s%d\n"
Now the same but using the c++ "new" command and arrow operators syntax
PRAGMA COMPILER g++
PRAGMA OPTIONS -Wno-write-strings -Wno-pointer-arith -fpermissive
OPTION PARSE FALSE
'---The class does the declaring for you
CLASS Books
public:
const char* title;
const char* author;
const char* subject;
int book_id;
END CLASS
'---pointer to an object declaration (we use a class called Books)
DECLARE Book1 TYPE Books*
'--- the correct syntax for class
Book1 = new Books()
'--- initialize the strings const char* in c++
Book1->title = "C++ Programming to bacon "
Book1->author = "anyone"
Book1->subject ="RECORD Tutorial"
Book1->book_id = 1234567
PRINT "Book title : " ,Book1->title FORMAT "%s%s\n"
PRINT "Book author : ", Book1->author FORMAT "%s%s\n"
PRINT "Book subject : ", Book1->subject FORMAT "%s%s\n"
PRINT "Book book_id : ", Book1->book_id FORMAT "%s%d\n"
BBC BASIC
INSTALL @lib$+"CLASSLIB"
REM Declare the class:
DIM MyClass{variable, @constructor, _method}
DEF MyClass.@constructor MyClass.variable = PI : ENDPROC
DEF MyClass._method = MyClass.variable ^ 2
REM Register the class:
PROC_class(MyClass{})
REM Instantiate the class:
PROC_new(myclass{}, MyClass{})
REM Call the method:
PRINT FN(myclass._method)
REM Discard the instance:
PROC_discard(myclass{})
QuickBASIC
TYPE MyClass
Variable AS INTEGER
END TYPE
DECLARE SUB MyClassDelete (pthis AS MyClass)
DECLARE SUB MyClassSomeMethod (pthis AS MyClass)
DECLARE SUB MyClassInit (pthis AS MyClass)
DIM obj AS MyClass
MyClassInit obj
MyClassSomeMethod obj
SUB MyClassInit (pthis AS MyClass)
pthis.Variable = 0
END SUB
SUB MyClassSomeMethod (pthis AS MyClass)
pthis.Variable = 1
END SUB
blz
# Constructors can take parameters (that automatically become properties)
constructor Ball(color, radius)
# Objects can also have functions (closures)
:volume
return 4/3 * {pi} * (radius ** 3)
end
:show
return "a " + color + " ball with radius " + radius
end
end
red_ball = Ball("red", 2)
print(red_ball)
# => a red ball with radius 2
BQN
Classes with a constructor can be defined in BQN with the help of a namespace. All data members are immutable(private) and can only be modified with the help of exported functions. Exported variables can be accessed, but they cannot be mutated(this may change in the future).
ExClass ← {
𝕊 value: # Constructor portion
priv ← value
priv2 ⇐ 0
ChangePriv ⇐ { priv ↩ 𝕩 }
DispPriv ⇐ {𝕊: •Show priv‿priv2 }
}
obj ← ExClass 5
obj.DispPriv@
obj.ChangePriv 6
obj.DispPriv@
Bracmat
Bracmat has no class-inheritance. Any object can function as a template for creating other objects.
( ( resolution
= (x=)
(y=)
(new=.!arg:(?(its.x),?(its.y)))
)
& new$(resolution,640,480):?VGA
& new$(resolution,1920,1080):?1080p
& out$("VGA: horizontal " !(VGA..x) " vertical " !(VGA..y)));
- Output:
VGA: horizontal 640 vertical 480
C
#include <stdlib.h>
typedef struct sMyClass
{
int variable;
} *MyClass;
MyClass MyClass_new()
{
MyClass pthis = malloc(sizeof *pthis);
pthis->variable = 0;
return pthis;
}
void MyClass_delete(MyClass* pthis)
{
if (pthis)
{
free(*pthis);
*pthis = NULL;
}
}
void MyClass_someMethod(MyClass pthis)
{
pthis->variable = 1;
}
MyClass obj = MyClass_new();
MyClass_someMethod(obj);
MyClass_delete(&obj);
C#
public class MyClass
{
public MyClass()
{
}
public void SomeMethod()
{
}
private int _variable;
public int Variable
{
get { return _variable; }
set { _variable = value; }
}
public static void Main()
{
// instantiate it
MyClass instance = new MyClass();
// invoke the method
instance.SomeMethod();
// set the variable
instance.Variable = 99;
// get the variable
System.Console.WriteLine( "Variable=" + instance.Variable.ToString() );
}
}
C++
class MyClass
{
public:
void someMethod(); // member function = method
MyClass(); // constructor
private:
int variable; // member variable = instance variable
};
// implementation of constructor
MyClass::MyClass():
variable(0)
{
// here could be more code
}
// implementation of member function
void MyClass::someMethod()
{
variable = 1; // alternatively: this->variable = 1
}
// Create an instance as variable
MyClass instance;
// Create an instance on free store
MyClass* pInstance = new MyClass;
// Instances allocated with new must be explicitly destroyed when not needed any more:
delete pInstance;
Note: MyClass instance(); would not define an instance, but declare a function returning an instance. Accidentally declaring functions when object definitions are wanted is a rather common bug in C++.
Functions can also be defined inline:
class MyClass
{
public:
MyClass(): variable(0) {}
void someMethod() { variable = 1; }
private:
int variable;
};
Note that member functions in C++ by default are not polymorphic; if you want a polymorphic member function, you have to mark it as virtual. In that case, you should also add a virtual destructor, even if that is empty. Example:
class MyClass
{
public:
virtual void someMethod(); // this is polymorphic
virtual ~MyClass(); // destructor
};
Clojure
Clojure gives you several options, and to help you decide which is more appropriate to use, see the Clojure type selection flowchart.
defrecord example:
; You can think of this as an interface
(defprotocol Foo (getFoo [this]))
; Generates Example1 Class with foo as field, with method that returns foo.
(defrecord Example1 [foo] Foo (getFoo [this] foo))
; Create instance and invoke our method to return field value
(-> (Example1. "Hi") .getFoo)
"Hi"
COBOL
IDENTIFICATION DIVISION.
CLASS-ID. my-class INHERITS base.
*> The 'INHERITS base' and the following ENVIRONMENT DIVISION
*> are optional (in Visual COBOL).
ENVIRONMENT DIVISION.
CONFIGURATION SECTION.
REPOSITORY.
CLASS base.
*> There is no way (as far as I can tell) of creating a
*> constructor. However, you could wrap it with another
*> method to achieve the desired effect.
*>...
OBJECT.
*> Instance data
DATA DIVISION.
WORKING-STORAGE SECTION.
01 instance-variable PIC 9(8).
*> Properties can have getters and setters automatically
*> generated.
01 a-property PIC 9(8) PROPERTY.
PROCEDURE DIVISION.
METHOD-ID. some-method.
PROCEDURE DIVISION.
*> ...
END METHOD some-method.
END OBJECT.
END CLASS my-class.
IDENTIFICATION DIVISION.
PROGRAM-ID. example-class-use.
ENVIRONMENT DIVISION.
CONFIGURATION SECTION.
REPOSITORY.
*> These declarations brings the class and property into
*> scope.
CLASS my-class
PROPERTY a-property.
DATA DIVISION.
WORKING-STORAGE SECTION.
*> Declaring a my-class reference variable.
01 instance USAGE OBJECT REFERENCE my-class.
PROCEDURE DIVISION.
*> Invoking a static method or (in this case) a constructor.
INVOKE my-class "new" RETURNING instance
*> Invoking an instance method.
INVOKE instance "some-method"
*> Using the setter and getter of a-property.
MOVE 5 TO a-property OF instance
DISPLAY a-property OF instance
GOBACK
.
END PROGRAM example-class-use.
Coco
class Rectangle
# The constructor is defined as a bare function. This
# constructor accepts one argument and automatically assigns it
# to an instance variable.
(@width) ->
# Another instance variable.
length: 10
# A method.
area: ->
@width * @length
# Instantiate the class using the 'new' operator.
rect = new Rectangle 2
CoffeeScript
# Create a basic class
class Rectangle
# Constructor that accepts one argument
constructor: (@width) ->
# An instance variable
length: 10
# A method
area: () ->
@width * @length
# Instantiate the class using the new operator
rect = new Rectangle 2
Common Lisp
(defclass circle ()
((radius :initarg :radius
:initform 1.0
:type number
:reader radius)))
(defmethod area ((shape circle))
(* pi (expt (radius shape) 2)))
> (defvar *c* (make-instance 'circle :radius 2))
> (area *c*)
12.566370614359172d0
Component Pascal
BlackBox Component Builder
Module that defines a Class
MODULE Point;
IMPORT
Strings;
TYPE
Instance* = POINTER TO LIMITED RECORD
x-, y- : LONGINT; (* Instance variables *)
END;
PROCEDURE (self: Instance) Initialize*(x,y: LONGINT), NEW;
BEGIN
self.x := x;
self.y := y
END Initialize;
(* constructor *)
PROCEDURE New*(x, y: LONGINT): Instance;
VAR
point: Instance;
BEGIN
NEW(point);
point.Initialize(x,y);
RETURN point
END New;
(* methods *)
PROCEDURE (self: Instance) Add*(other: Instance): Instance, NEW;
BEGIN
RETURN New(self.x + other.x,self.y + other.y);
END Add;
PROCEDURE (self: Instance) ToString*(): POINTER TO ARRAY OF CHAR, NEW;
VAR
xStr,yStr: ARRAY 64 OF CHAR;
str: POINTER TO ARRAY OF CHAR;
BEGIN
Strings.IntToString(self.x,xStr);
Strings.IntToString(self.y,yStr);
NEW(str,128);str^ := "@(" +xStr$ + "," + yStr$ + ")";
RETURN str
END ToString;
END Point.
Module that uses previous class
MODULE DrivePoint;
IMPORT
Point,
StdLog;
PROCEDURE Do*;
VAR
p,q: Point.Instance;
BEGIN
p := Point.New(1,2);
q := Point.New(2,1);
StdLog.String(p.ToString() + " + " + q.ToString() + " = " + p.Add(q).ToString());StdLog.Ln;
StdLog.String("p.x:> ");StdLog.Int(p.x);StdLog.Ln;
StdLog.String("p.y:> ");StdLog.Int(p.y);StdLog.Ln
END Do;
END DrivePoint.
Execute: ^Q DrivePoint.Do
- Output:
@(1,2) + @(2,1) = @(3,3) p.x:> 1 p.y:> 2
Crystal
class MyClass
def initialize
@instance_var = 0
end
def add_1
@instance_var += 1
end
end
my_class = MyClass.new
D
import std.stdio;
class MyClass {
//constructor (not necessary if empty)
this() {}
void someMethod() {
variable = 1;
}
// getter method
@property int variable() const {
return variable_;
}
// setter method
@property int variable(int newVariable) {
return variable_ = newVariable;
}
private int variable_;
}
void main() {
// On default class instances are allocated on the heap
// The GC will manage their lifetime
auto obj = new MyClass();
// prints 'variable = 0', ints are initialized to 0 by default
writeln("variable = ", obj.variable);
// invoke the method
obj.someMethod();
// prints 'variable = 1'
writeln("variable = ", obj.variable);
// set the variable using setter method
obj.variable = 99;
// prints 'variable = 99'
writeln("variable = ", obj.variable);
}
Delphi
program SampleClass;
{$APPTYPE CONSOLE}
type
TMyClass = class
private
FSomeField: Integer; // by convention, fields are usually private and exposed as properties
public
constructor Create;
destructor Destroy; override;
procedure SomeMethod;
property SomeField: Integer read FSomeField write FSomeField;
end;
constructor TMyClass.Create;
begin
FSomeField := -1
end;
destructor TMyClass.Destroy;
begin
// free resources, etc
inherited Destroy;
end;
procedure TMyClass.SomeMethod;
begin
// do something
end;
var
lMyClass: TMyClass;
begin
lMyClass := TMyClass.Create;
try
lMyClass.SomeField := 99;
lMyClass.SomeMethod();
finally
lMyClass.Free;
end;
end.
DM
In DM, all "classes" are part of the "object tree". Instance variables, procs (functions), ... are all defined inside this "tree". Adding elements (procs, variables, classes) to this tree is done by defining the name and such.
s
This declares a type "/s" at the root of the tree, which can now be instantiated.
A more complicated example:
// Declare the class "/foo"
foo
// Everything inside the indented block is relative to the parent, "/foo" here.
// Instance variable "bar", with a default value of 0
// Here, var/bar is relative to /foo, thus it becomes "/foo/var/bar" ultimately.
var/bar = 0
// The "New" proc is the constructor.
New()
// Constructor code.
// Declares a proc called "Baz" on /foo
proc/baz()
// Do things.
// Instantiation code.
// Overriding /client/New() means it is ran when a client connects.
/client/New()
..()
var/foo/x = new /foo()
x.bar = 10 // Assign to the instance variable.
x.baz() // Call "baz" on our instance.
This is enough to declare a
Dragon
class run{
func val(){
showln 10+20
}
}
DWScript
Methods can be implemented inline or out-of-line, this sample illustrates both.
type
TMyClass = class
private
FSomeField: Integer; // by convention, fields are usually private and exposed as properties
public
constructor Create;
begin
FSomeField := -1;
end;
procedure SomeMethod;
property SomeField: Integer read FSomeField write FSomeField;
end;
procedure TMyClass.SomeMethod;
begin
// do something
end;
var lMyClass: TMyClass;
lMyClass := new TMyClass; // can also use TMyClass.Create
lMyClass.SomeField := 99;
lMyClass.SomeMethod;
E
In E, classes, constructors, and instance variables are not built into the language. This is an example of the basic convention; different cases may call for objects built in different ways.
def makeColor(name :String) {
def color {
to colorize(thing :String) {
return `$name $thing`
}
}
return color
}
Example interactive session creating and using it:
? def red := makeColor("red")
# value: <color>
? red.colorize("apple")
# value: "red apple"
EchoLisp
(lib 'gloops) ; load oo library
(define-class Person null (name (age :initform 66)))
(define-method tostring (Person) (lambda (p) ( format "🚶 %a " p.name)))
(define-method mailto (Person Person) (lambda( p o) (printf "From %a to️ %a : ..." p o)))
;; define a sub-class of Person with same methods
(define-class Writer (Person) (books))
(define-method tostring (Writer) (lambda (w)( format "🎩 %a" w.name)))
(define-method mailto (Person Writer)
(lambda (p w) (printf " From %a (age %d). Dear writer of %a ..." p p.age w.books )))
- Output:
;; instantiate
(define simone (make-instance Person :name 'simone :age 42)) ;; slots values by name
(define antoinette (make-instance Person :name 'antoinette :age 37))
(define albert (Person "albert" 33)) ;; quick way : slots values in order
(define simon (make-instance Writer :name "simon" :books '(my-life my-bike)))
(mailto simone simon) ;; method Person-Writer
(mailto simone antoinette) ;; method Person-Person
(mailto simon albert) ;; no method Writer-Person : call 'super' Person-Person
(mailto simon simon) ;; no mehod Writer-Writer : call 'super' Person-Writer
→
From 🚶 simone (age 42). Dear writer of (my-life my-bike) ...
From 🚶 simone to️ 🚶 antoinette : ...
From 🎩 simon to️ 🚶 albert : ...
From 🎩 simon (age 66). Dear writer of (my-life my-bike) ...
Eiffel
The Most Basic Form of Class
The shortest way to write an Eiffel class is to have the class keyword, followed by the name of the class (all caps), and ending with the end keyword.
class MY_CLASS
end
Add a Creation Procedure (Constructor)
class MY_CLASS
create
make
feature {NONE} -- Initialization
make
-- This is a creation procedure or "Constructor".
do
create my_string.make_empty
end
end
Add Multiple Creation Procedures (Constructors)
In Eiffel, you may have more than one creation procedure (or "Constructor").
class MY_CLASS
create -- Here we are declaring ...
make, -- In the Feature group (below) we are coding
make_this_way, -- each of these declared creation procedures.
make_that_way, -- We can have as many constructors as we need.
make_another_way,
a_name_other_than_make
feature {NONE} -- Initialization
make
-- This is a creation procedure or "Constructor".
do
-- Initialization code goes here ...
end
make_this_way
-- Make this way, rather than a plain ole "make".
do
-- Initialization code goes here ...
end
make_that_way
-- Create that way rather than this way (above).
do
-- Initialization code goes here ...
end
make_another_way
-- And still another way to create MY_CLASS.
do
-- Initialization code goes here ...
end
a_name_other_than_make
-- There is no requirement to use the word "make".
-- The word "make" is just a naming convention.
do
-- Initialization code goes here ...
end
end
Add some Properties & Methods
Below, we've added three attributes (i.e. "Properties"). The "make" is not only a "Constructor" (Creation Procedure), but also an example of a "Method".
class MY_CLASS
create
make
feature {NONE} -- Initialization
make
-- This is a creation procedure or "Constructor".
do
create my_string.make_empty
end
feature -- Access (Properties)
my_string: STRING
-- This is a comment about `my_string', which is a "Property".
my_integer: INTEGER
-- Unlike `my_string' (above), the INTEGER type is an "Expanded Type".
-- This means INTEGER objects know how to self-initialize.
my_date: DATE
-- This attribute (or "Property") will need to be initialized.
-- One way to do that is to make a self-initializing attribute, thus ...
attribute
create Result.make_now
end
feature -- Basic Operations (Methods)
do_something
-- Loop over and print the numbers 1 to 100 to the console.
do
across 1 |..| 100 as i loop print (i.out) end
end
do_something_else
-- Set a and b and print the result.
local
a, b, c: INTEGER
do
a := 1
b := 2
c := a + b
end
end
Elena
ELENA 6.x :
import extensions;
class MyClass
{
int Variable : prop;
someMethod()
{
Variable := 1
}
constructor()
{
}
}
public program()
{
// instantiate the class
var instance := new MyClass();
// invoke the method
instance.someMethod();
// get the variable
console.printLine("Variable=",instance.Variable)
}
EMal
type Bear ^| the type system is informed about the new type,
| here we are in the static context
|^
model # instance context
text name # instance variable
^|
| in EMal the instance variables are ordered, and a default
| variadic constructor is provided by the runtime.
| Every value passed to the constructor sets the instance variable
| according to the order.
|^
fun makeNoise = void by block # method of Bear
writeLine("Growl!")
end
end
type Cat
model
text noise
new by text noise # an explicit constructor
me.noise = noise # we must use me to access instance variables
end
fun makeNoise = void by block
writeLine(me.noise)
end
end
type Main
Bear bear = Bear("Bruno") # creating a new instance
writeLine("The bear is called " + bear.name)
bear.makeNoise()
Cat("Meow").makeNoise()
- Output:
The bear is called Bruno Growl! Meow
ERRE
ERRE isn't OOP-oriented, but with new PC version 3.0 is possibile to define classes and instance variables, like in this example:
PROGRAM CLASS2_DEMO
CLASS QUADRATO
LOCAL LATO
PROCEDURE GETLATO(L)
LATO=L
END PROCEDURE
PROCEDURE AREA(->A)
A=LATO*LATO
END PROCEDURE
PROCEDURE PERIMETRO(->P)
P=4*LATO
END PROCEDURE
END CLASS
NEW P:QUADRATO,Q:QUADRATO
BEGIN
P_GETLATO(10)
P_AREA(->AREAP)
PRINT(AREAP)
Q_GETLATO(20)
Q_PERIMETRO(->PERIMETROQ)
PRINT(PERIMETROQ)
END PROGRAM
The answers is
100 80
F#
A minimal example as required by the task description:
type MyClass(init) = // constructor with one argument: init
let mutable var = init // a private instance variable
member x.Method() = // a simple method
var <- var + 1
printfn "%d" var
// create an instance and use it
let myObject = new MyClass(42)
myObject.Method()
A somewhat more meaningful example, inspired by the Haskell version:
open System
type Shape =
abstract Perimeter: unit -> float
abstract Area: unit -> float
type Circle(radius) =
interface Shape with
member x.Perimeter() = 2.0 * radius * Math.PI
member x.Area() = Math.PI * radius**2.0
type Rectangle(width, height) =
interface Shape with
member x.Perimeter() = 2.0 * width + 2.0 * height
member x.Area() = width * height
Factor
TUPLE: my-class foo bar baz ;
M: my-class quux foo>> 20 + ;
C: <my-class> my-class
10 20 30 <my-class> quux ! result: 30
TUPLE: my-child-class < my-class quxx ;
C: <my-child-class> my-child-class
M: my-child-class foobar 20 >>quux ;
20 20 30 <my-child-class> foobar quux ! result: 30
Falcon
Falcon classes are a mix of data and code that can be used to instantiate objects. Classes are defined below. Note: inh1...inhN can also be passed the param_list.
class class_name[ ( param_list ) ] [ from inh1[, inh2, ..., inhN] ]
[ static block ]
[ properties declaration ]
[init block]
[method list]
end
Example of a class:
class mailbox( max_msg )
capacity = max_msg * 10
name = nil
messages = []
init
printl( "Box now ready for ", self.capacity, " messages." )
end
function slot_left()
return self.capacity - len( self.messages )
end
end
Instantiation:
m = mailbox( 10 )
// Ouputs: Box now ready for 100 messages.
Fancy
class MyClass {
read_slot: 'instance_var # creates getter method for @instance_var
@@class_var = []
def initialize {
# 'initialize' is the constructor method invoked during 'MyClass.new' by convention
@instance_var = 0
}
def some_method {
@instance_var = 1
@another_instance_var = "foo"
}
# define class methods: define a singleton method on the class object
def self class_method {
# ...
}
# you can also name the class object itself
def MyClass class_method {
# ...
}
}
myclass = MyClass new
Fantom
class MyClass
{
// an instance variable
Int x
// a constructor, providing default value for instance variable
new make (Int x := 1)
{
this.x = x
}
// a method, return double the number x
public Int double ()
{
return 2 * x
}
}
class Main
{
public static Void main ()
{
a := MyClass (2) // instantiates the class, with x = 2
b := MyClass() // instantiates the class, x defaults to 1
c := MyClass { x = 3 } // instantiates the class, sets x to 3
}
}
Forth
ANSI Forth has no object oriented features, but as Forth is a very easy language to extend, many object oriented programming systems have been implemented for it over the years. WinForth has one such system, which is described here.
Declare a class
:class MyClass <super Object
int memvar
:m ClassInit: ( -- )
ClassInit: super
1 to memvar ;m
:m ~: ( -- ) ." Final " show: [ Self ] ;m
:m set: ( n -- ) to memvar ;m
:m show: ( -- ) ." Memvar = " memvar . ;m
;class
Allocate a static object
MyClass newInstance
Allocate a dynamic object, saving its pointer in a global variable.
New> MyClass value newInstance
Call member functions
10 set: newInstance
show: newInstance
Free a dynamically allocated object
newInstance dispose
0 to newInstance \ no dangling pointers!
Example of dynamic allocation and local variable use"
: test { \ obj -- }
New> MyClass to obj
show: obj
1000 set: obj
obj dispose ;
Works with any ANS Forth
Needs the FMS-SI (single inheritance) library code located here: http://soton.mpeforth.com/flag/fms/index.html
include FMS-SI.f
:class foo \ begin class foo definition
ivar x \ declare an instance variable named x
:m put ( n -- ) x ! ;m \ a method/message definition
:m init: 10 self put ;m \ the constructor method
:m print x ? ;m \ a print method for x
;class \ end class foo definition
foo f1 \ instantiate a foo object, in the dictionary, named f1
f1 print \ 10 send the print message to object f1
20 f1 put \ send a message with one parameter to the object
f1 print \ 20
: bar \ bar is a normal Forth function definition
heap> foo \ instantiate a nameless object in the heap
dup print
30 over put
dup print
<free ; \ destroy the heap object
: bar' \ bar' is an alternative to bar that uses a local variable
heap> foo {: f :}
f print
30 f put
f print
f <free ;
bar \ 10 30
bar' \ 10 30
Fortran
Creating abstract derived type (abstract class), extended derived types, using constructor and finalization, pointers etc. Works with gfortran 5.0 and intel ifort 15.0.2
!-----------------------------------------------------------------------
!Module accuracy defines precision and some constants
!-----------------------------------------------------------------------
module accuracy_module
implicit none
integer, parameter, public :: rdp = kind(1.d0)
! constants
real(rdp), parameter :: pi=3.141592653589793238462643383279502884197_rdp
end module accuracy_module
!-----------------------------------------------------------------------
!Module typedefs_module contains abstract derived type and extended type definitions.
! Note that a reserved word "class" in Fortran is used to describe
! some polymorphic variable whose data type may vary at run time.
!-----------------------------------------------------------------------
module typedefs_module
use accuracy_module
implicit none
private ! all
public :: TPoint, TShape, TCircle, TRectangle, TSquare ! public only these defined derived types
! abstract derived type
type, abstract :: TShape
real(rdp) :: area
character(len=:),allocatable :: name
contains
! deferred method i.e. abstract method = must be overridden in extended type
procedure(calculate_area), deferred,pass :: calculate_area
end type TShape
! just declaration of the abstract method/procedure for TShape type
abstract interface
function calculate_area(this)
use accuracy_module
import TShape !imports TShape type from host scoping unit and makes it accessible here
implicit none
class(TShape) :: this
real(rdp) :: calculate_area
end function calculate_area
end interface
! auxiliary derived type
type TPoint
real(rdp) :: x,y
end type TPoint
! extended derived type
type, extends(TShape) :: TCircle
real(rdp) :: radius
real(rdp), private :: diameter
type(TPoint) :: centre
contains
procedure, pass :: calculate_area => calculate_circle_area
procedure, pass :: get_circle_diameter
final :: finalize_circle
end type TCircle
! extended derived type
type, extends(TShape) :: TRectangle
type(TPoint) :: A,B,C,D
contains
procedure, pass :: calculate_area => calculate_rectangle_area
final :: finalize_rectangle
end type TRectangle
! extended derived type
type, extends(TRectangle) :: TSquare
contains
procedure, pass :: calculate_area => calculate_square_area
final :: finalize_square
end type TSquare
contains
! finalization subroutines for each type
! They called recursively, i.e. finalize_rectangle
! will be called after finalize_square subroutine
subroutine finalize_circle(x)
type(TCircle), intent(inout) :: x
write(*,*) "Deleting TCircle object"
end subroutine finalize_circle
subroutine finalize_rectangle(x)
type(TRectangle), intent(inout) :: x
write(*,*) "Deleting also TRectangle object"
end subroutine finalize_rectangle
subroutine finalize_square(x)
type(TSquare), intent(inout) :: x
write(*,*) "Deleting TSquare object"
end subroutine finalize_square
function calculate_circle_area(this)
implicit none
class(TCircle) :: this
real(rdp) :: calculate_circle_area
this%area = pi * this%radius**2
calculate_circle_area = this%area
end function calculate_circle_area
function calculate_rectangle_area(this)
implicit none
class(TRectangle) :: this
real(rdp) :: calculate_rectangle_area
! here could be more code
this%area = 1
calculate_rectangle_area = this%area
end function calculate_rectangle_area
function calculate_square_area(this)
implicit none
class(TSquare) :: this
real(rdp) :: calculate_square_area
! here could be more code
this%area = 1
calculate_square_area = this%area
end function calculate_square_area
function get_circle_diameter(this)
implicit none
class(TCircle) :: this
real(rdp) :: get_circle_diameter
this % diameter = 2.0_rdp * this % radius
get_circle_diameter = this % diameter
end function get_circle_diameter
end module typedefs_module
!-----------------------------------------------------------------------
!Main program
!-----------------------------------------------------------------------
program rosetta_class
use accuracy_module
use typedefs_module
implicit none
! we need this subroutine in order to show the finalization
call test_types()
contains
subroutine test_types()
implicit none
! declare object of type TPoint
type(TPoint), target :: point
! declare object of type TCircle
type(TCircle),target :: circle
! declare object of type TSquare
type(TSquare),target :: square
! declare pointers
class(TPoint), pointer :: ppo
class(TCircle), pointer :: pci
class(TSquare), pointer :: psq
!constructor
point = TPoint(5.d0,5.d0)
ppo => point
write(*,*) "x=",point%x,"y=",point%y
pci => circle
pci % radius = 1
write(*,*) pci % radius
! write(*,*) pci % diameter !No,it is a PRIVATE component
write(*,*) pci % get_circle_diameter()
write(*,*) pci % calculate_area()
write(*,*) pci % area
psq => square
write(*,*) psq % area
write(*,*) psq % calculate_area()
write(*,*) psq % area
end subroutine test_types
end program rosetta_class
FreeBASIC
' FB 1.05.0 Win64
Type MyClass
Private:
myInt_ As Integer
Public:
Declare Constructor(myInt_ As Integer)
Declare Property MyInt() As Integer
Declare Function Treble() As Integer
End Type
Constructor MyClass(myInt_ As Integer)
This.myInt_ = myInt_
End Constructor
Property MyClass.MyInt() As Integer
Return myInt_
End Property
Function MyClass.Treble() As Integer
Return 3 * myInt_
End Function
Dim mc As MyClass = MyClass(24)
Print mc.MyInt, mc.Treble()
Print "Press any key to quit the program"
Sleep
- Output:
24 72
GLSL
There are no classes in GLSL, but they can be simulated using structs:
struct Rectangle{
float width;
float height;
};
Rectangle new(float width,float height){
Rectangle self;
self.width = width;
self.height = height;
return self;
}
float area(Rectangle self){
return self.width*self.height;
}
float perimeter(Rectangle self){
return (self.width+self.height)*2.0;
}
Go
The task describes several concepts concerning class methods before giving some task requirements. The following code satisfies the task requirements. The concepts described however, are more involved. A discussion of these concepts follows.
package main
import "fmt"
// a basic "class."
// In quotes because Go does not use that term or have that exact concept.
// Go simply has types that can have methods.
type picnicBasket struct {
nServings int // "instance variables"
corkscrew bool
}
// a method (yes, Go uses the word method!)
func (b *picnicBasket) happy() bool {
return b.nServings > 1 && b.corkscrew
}
// a "constructor."
// Also in quotes as Go does not have that exact mechanism as part of the
// language. A common idiom however, is a function with the name new<Type>,
// that returns a new object of the type, fully initialized as needed and
// ready to use. It makes sense to use this kind of constructor function when
// non-trivial initialization is needed. In cases where the concise syntax
// shown is sufficient however, it is not idiomatic to define the function.
// Rather, code that needs a new object would simply contain &picnicBasket{...
func newPicnicBasket(nPeople int) *picnicBasket {
// arbitrary code to interpret arguments, check resources, etc.
// ...
// return data new object.
// this is the concise syntax. there are other ways of doing it.
return &picnicBasket{nPeople, nPeople > 0}
}
// how to instantiate it.
func main() {
var pb picnicBasket // create on stack (probably)
pbl := picnicBasket{} // equivalent to above
pbp := &picnicBasket{} // create on heap. pbp is pointer to object.
pbn := new(picnicBasket) // equivalent to above
forTwo := newPicnicBasket(2) // using constructor
// equivalent to above. field names, called keys, are optional.
forToo := &picnicBasket{nServings: 2, corkscrew: true}
fmt.Println(pb.nServings, pb.corkscrew)
fmt.Println(pbl.nServings, pbl.corkscrew)
fmt.Println(pbp)
fmt.Println(pbn)
fmt.Println(forTwo)
fmt.Println(forToo)
}
- Output:
0 false 0 false &{0 false} &{0 false} &{2 true} &{2 true}
Transitive closure based on inheritance
Method polymorphism exists in Go with a type called interface. A Go interface is a method set. A type is said to satisfy an interface if it has defined on it all methods of the interface. If interface A is a subset of interface B then A satisfies B, so a transitive closure exists on this concept of satisfying an interface.
Inheritance is not involved however. A type satisfies an interface automatically when all methods of the interface are defined on the type. Inheritance is not involved because the interface being satisfied is not mentioned in any way, either in the type satisfying the interface or in its methods. The writer of a type and methods need not even be aware that the interface being satisfied exists.
Root type
The empty interface, with an empty method set and written as interface{}, is the “root type” in this context of transitive closure of interface satisfaction. All types satisfy the empty interface, since it makes no requirements that any methods be defined at all. interface{} is often used in go as a type that can hold a data value of any type. For example, note how fmt.Println, used above, accepts arguments of any type. It's (variadic) argument is of type interface{}.
Polymorphic dispatch
This happens when a method is called through an interface. Consider this code in addition to the example above.
import reflect
type happinessTester interface {
happy() bool
}
type bottleOfWine struct {
USD float64
empty bool
}
func (b *bottleOfWine) happy() bool {
return b.USD > 10 && !b.empty
}
func main() {
partySupplies := []happinessTester{
&picnicBasket{2, true},
&bottleOfWine{USD: 6},
}
for _, ps := range partySupplies {
fmt.Printf("%s: happy? %t\n",
reflect.Indirect(reflect.ValueOf(ps)).Type().Name(),
ps.happy())
}
}
On the last line, in the call to ps.happy(), ps is of the interface type happinessTester. The method actually called is based on the underlying concrete type. For the method call, this is called the receiver type and the variable b (in both happy methods) is called the receiver. Dispatch is based on this single receiver so Go is a single dispatch kind of language.
Type tag
Go maintains something equivalent in its internal representation of interfaces. In place of direct access to internal data, Go's reflect package provides a number of functions for inspecting types and returning useful information. Shown above for example, is code recovering the name of the concrete type underlying the dynamic type of the interface.
- Output:
for second example
picnicBasket: happy? true bottleOfWine: happy? false
Distinction of types and classes
To the extent that an interface represents a class, it is distinct from a type that satisfies it. Interface is one kind of type, but an object of any type can satisfy an interface. The two types—the interface type and the type satisfying the interface—are distinct.
Groovy
A class:
/** Ye olde classe declaration */
class Stuff {
/** Heare bee anne instance variable declared */
def guts
/** This constructor converts bits into Stuff */
Stuff(injectedGuts) {
guts = injectedGuts
}
/** Brethren and sistren, let us flangulate with this fine flangulating method */
def flangulate() {
println "This stuff is flangulating its guts: ${guts}"
}
}
A demonstration:
def stuff = new Stuff('''
I have made mistakes in the past.
I have made mistakes in the future.
-- Vice President Dan Quayle
''')
stuff.flangulate()
stuff.guts = '''
Our enemies are innovative and resourceful, and so are we.
They never stop thinking about new ways to harm our country and our people,
and neither do we.
-- President George W. Bush
'''
stuff.flangulate()
- Output:
This stuff is flangulating its guts: I have made mistakes in the past. I have made mistakes in the future. -- Vice President Dan Quayle This stuff is flangulating its guts: Our enemies are innovative and resourceful, and so are we. They never stop thinking about new ways to harm our country and our people, and neither do we. -- President George W. Bush
Haskell
Haskell is entirely statically typed; that is, the type of every expression is completely determined at compile-time. Hence, the usual approach to object-oriented programming, in which the actual method invoked by a method call isn't determined until runtime (think of C++'s virtual functions), is impossible in Haskell 98. Haskell's type classes allow for polymorphic functions, but all the polymorphism happens at compile-time (think of C++ templates) without the use of language extensions (existential types).
class Shape a where
perimeter :: a -> Double
area :: a -> Double
{- A type class Shape. Types belonging to Shape must support two
methods, perimeter and area. -}
data Rectangle = Rectangle Double Double
{- A new type with a single constructor. In the case of data types
which have only one constructor, we conventionally give the
constructor the same name as the type, though this isn't mandatory. -}
data Circle = Circle Double
instance Shape Rectangle where
perimeter (Rectangle width height) = 2 * width + 2 * height
area (Rectangle width height) = width * height
{- We made Rectangle an instance of the Shape class by
implementing perimeter, area :: Rectangle -> Int. -}
instance Shape Circle where
perimeter (Circle radius) = 2 * pi * radius
area (Circle radius) = pi * radius^2
apRatio :: Shape a => a -> Double
{- A simple polymorphic function. -}
apRatio shape = area shape / perimeter shape
main = do
print $ apRatio $ Circle 5
print $ apRatio $ Rectangle 5 5
{- The correct version of apRatio (and hence the correct
implementations of perimeter and area) is chosen based on the type
of the argument. -}
The primary way to simulate run-time polymorphism in Haskell is to use a single algebraic data type with multiple constructors, rather than several types belonging to a single class.
data Shape = Rectangle Double Double | Circle Double
{- This Shape is a type rather than a type class. Rectangle and
Circle are its constructors. -}
perimeter :: Shape -> Double
{- An ordinary function, not a method. -}
perimeter (Rectangle width height) = 2 * width + 2 * height
perimeter (Circle radius) = 2 * pi * radius
area :: Shape -> Double
area (Rectangle width height) = width * height
area (Circle radius) = pi * radius^2
apRatio :: Shape -> Double
{- Technically, this version of apRatio is monomorphic. -}
apRatio shape = area shape / perimeter shape
main = do
print $ apRatio $ Circle 5
print $ apRatio $ Rectangle 5 5
{- The value returned by apRatio is determined by the return values
of area and perimeter, which just happen to be defined differently
for Rectangles and Circles. -}
Icon and Unicon
Unicon supports classes.
class Example (x) # 'x' is a field in class
# method definition
method double ()
return 2 * x
end
# 'initially' block is called on instance construction
initially (x)
if /x # if x is null (not given), then set field to 0
then self.x := 0
else self.x := x
end
procedure main ()
x1 := Example () # new instance with default value of x
x2 := Example (2) # new instance with given value of x
write (x1.x)
write (x2.x)
write (x2.double ()) # call a method
end
J
Class definition:
coclass 'exampleClass'
exampleMethod=: monad define
1+exampleInstanceVariable
)
create=: monad define
'this is the constructor'
)
exampleInstanceVariable=: 0
Instantiation:
exampleObject=: conew 'exampleClass'
Note that all J system defined utilities designed specifically to work on classes and objects have names which begin with the prefix co
.
Java
public class MyClass{
// instance variable
private int variable; // Note: instance variables are usually "private"
/**
* The constructor
*/
public MyClass(){
// creates a new instance
}
/**
* A method
*/
public void someMethod(){
this.variable = 1;
}
}
Note: "this." in someMethod is optional. "variable = 1;" works also. If a parameter also named "variable" came into someMethod, using "this" specifies using the instance variable rather than the local method variable. Instantiate this class using:
new MyClass();
JavaScript
ES5
JavaScript is prototype-based, so it doesn't have classes per se. Thinking in classes when coding JavaScript will only hinder you in the long run, but here's an example of JavaScript OO:
//Constructor function.
function Car(brand, weight) {
this.brand = brand;
this.weight = weight || 1000; // Resort to default value (with 'or' notation).
}
Car.prototype.getPrice = function() { // Method of Car.
return this.price;
}
function Truck(brand, size) {
this.car = Car;
this.car(brand, 2000); // Call another function, modifying the "this" object (e.g. "superconstructor".)
this.size = size; // Custom property for just this object.
}
Truck.prototype = Car.prototype; // Also "import" the prototype from Car.
var cars = [ // Some example car objects.
new Car("Mazda"),
new Truck("Volvo", 2)
];
for (var i=0; i<cars.length; i++) {
alert(cars[i].brand + " " + cars[i].weight + " " + cars[i].size + ", " +
(cars[i] instanceof Car) + " " + (cars[i] instanceof Truck));
}
The alerts shows us:
Mazda 1000 undefined, true true Volvo 2000 2, true true
The reason Car shows as instanceof Truck is because we've overwritten Truck.prototype with Car.prototype. It's probably not the best way to do it, but it suffices for most cases.
ES6
class Car {
/**
* A few brands of cars
* @type {string[]}
*/
static brands = ['Mazda', 'Volvo'];
/**
* Weight of car
* @type {number}
*/
weight = 1000;
/**
* Brand of car
* @type {string}
*/
brand;
/**
* Price of car
* @type {number}
*/
price;
/**
* @param {string} brand - car brand
* @param {number} weight - mass of car
*/
constructor(brand, weight) {
if (brand) this.brand = brand;
if (weight) this.weight = weight
}
/**
* Drive
* @param distance - distance to drive
*/
drive(distance = 10) {
console.log(`A ${this.brand} ${this.constructor.name} drove ${distance}cm`);
}
/**
* Formatted stats string
*/
get formattedStats() {
let out =
`Type: ${this.constructor.name.toLowerCase()}`
+ `\nBrand: ${this.brand}`
+ `\nWeight: ${this.weight}`;
if (this.size) out += `\nSize: ${this.size}`;
return out
}
}
class Truck extends Car {
/**
* Size of truck
* @type {number}
*/
size;
/**
* @param {string} brand - car brand
* @param {number} size - size of car
*/
constructor(brand, size) {
super(brand, 2000);
if (size) this.size = size;
}
}
let myTruck = new Truck('Volvo', 2);
console.log(myTruck.formattedStats);
myTruck.drive(40);
Output:
Type: truck Brand: Volvo Weight: 2000 Size: 2 A Volvo Truck drove 40cm
Julia
Julia has inheritable types and abstract classes but does not have multiple inheritance. Multiple dispatch is a core feature of the language.
abstract type Mammal end
habitat(::Mammal) = "planet Earth"
struct Whale <: Mammal
mass::Float64
habitat::String
end
Base.show(io::IO, ::Whale) = print(io, "a whale")
habitat(w::Whale) = w.habitat
struct Wolf <: Mammal
mass::Float64
end
Base.show(io::IO, ::Wolf) = print(io, "a wolf")
arr = [Whale(1000, "ocean"), Wolf(50)]
println("Type of $arr is ", typeof(arr))
for a in arr
println("Habitat of $a: ", habitat(a))
end
- Output:
Type of Mammal[a whale, a wolf] is Array{Mammal,1} Habitat of a whale: ocean Habitat of a wolf: planet Earth
Kotlin
class MyClass(val myInt: Int) {
fun treble(): Int = myInt * 3
}
fun main(args: Array<String>) {
val mc = MyClass(24)
print("${mc.myInt}, ${mc.treble()}")
}
- Output:
24, 72
Lasso
In Lasso, a "class" is termed a "type"
define mytype => type {
data
public id::integer = 0,
public val::string = '',
public rand::integer = 0
public onCreate() => {
// "onCreate" runs when instance created, populates .rand
.rand = math_random(50,1)
}
public asString() => {
return 'has a value of: "'+.val+'" and a rand number of "'+.rand+'"'
}
}
local(x = mytype)
#x->val = '99 Bottles of beer'
#x->asString // outputs 'has a value of: "99 Bottles of beer" and a rand number of "48"'
LFE
(defmodule simple-object
(export all))
(defun fish-class (species)
"
This is the constructor used internally, once the children and fish id are
known.
"
(let ((habitat '"water"))
(lambda (method-name)
(case method-name
('habitat
(lambda (self) habitat))
('species
(lambda (self) species))))))
(defun get-method (object method-name)
"
This is a generic function, used to call into the given object (class
instance).
"
(funcall object method-name))
; define object methods
(defun get-habitat (object)
"Get a variable set in the class."
(funcall (get-method object 'habitat) object))
(defun get-species (object)
"Get a variable passed when constructing the object."
(funcall (get-method object 'species) object))
Usage from the LFE REPL:
> (slurp '"simple-object.lfe")
#(ok simple-object)
> (set my-fish (fish-class '"Carp"))
#Fun<lfe_eval.10.91765564>
> (get-habitat my-fish)
"water"
> (get-species my-fish)
"Carp"
Lingo
Class definition:
----------------------------------------
-- @desc Class "MyClass"
-- @file parent script "MyClass"
----------------------------------------
-- instance variable
property _myvar
-- constructor
on new (me)
me._myvar = 23
return me
end
-- a method
on doubleAndPrint (me)
me._myvar = me._myvar * 2
put me._myvar
end
Instantiation:
foo = script("MyClass").new()
foo.doubleAndPrint()
-- 46
Lisaac
Section Header
+ name := SAMPLE;
Section Inherit
- parent : OBJECT := OBJECT;
Section Private
+ variable : INTEGER <- 0;
Section Public
- some_method <- (
variable := 1;
);
- main <- (
+ sample : SAMPLE;
sample := SAMPLE.clone;
sample.some_method;
);
Logtalk
The definition of classes in Logtalk require the use of meta-classes. In order to avoid infinite regression, we use here the usual trick of making a class an instance of itself. The class meta-class holds the constructor method, allowing the class to accept a message for creating a new instance. The class itself defines the methods and variables of its instances.
:- object(metaclass,
instantiates(metaclass)).
:- public(new/2).
new(Instance, Value) :-
self(Class),
create_object(Instance, [instantiates(Class)], [], [state(Value)]).
:- end_object.
:- object(class,
instantiates(metaclass)).
:- public(method/1).
method(Value) :-
::state(Value).
:- private(state/1).
:- end_object.
A simple usage example after compiling and loading the above code:
| ?- class::new(Instance, 1).
Instance = o1
yes
| ?- o1::method(Value).
Value = 1
yes
Lua
Classes in Lua are implemented with metatables. This doesn't implement a full system, but it gets the basic idea:
myclass = setmetatable({
__index = function(z,i) return myclass[i] end, --this makes class variables a possibility
setvar = function(z, n) z.var = n end
}, {
__call = function(z,n) return setmetatable({var = n}, myclass) end
})
instance = myclass(3)
print(instance.var) -->3
instance:setvar(6)
print(instance.var) -->6
M2000 Interpreter
Class zz {
module bb {
Superclass A {
unique:
counter
}
Superclass B1 {
unique:
counter
}
Superclass B2 {
unique:
counter
}
\\ We can make a group Alfa with a member, another group Beta
\\ Group Beta can't see parent group, but can see own member groups
\\ Group Alfa can see everything in nested groups, in any level,
\\ but can't see inside modules/functions/operator/value/set
Group Alfa {
Group Beta { }
}
Alfa=A
Alfa.Beta=B1
\\ we make 3 groups for marshaling counters
\\ each group get a superclass
Marshal1=A
Marshal2=B1
Marshal3=B2
\\ Now we want to add functionality7
\\ Inc module to add 1 to counter
\\ a Value function to return counter
\\ Without Value a group return a copy
\\ If a group has a value then we can get copy using Group(nameofgroup)
\\ just delete Group Marshal1 and remove Rem when we make Marshal1 using a class function
Group Marshal1 {
Module Inc {
For SuperClass {.counter++}
}
Value {
For SuperClass {=.counter}
}
}
Class AnyMarshal {
Module Inc {
For SuperClass {.counter++}
}
Value {
For SuperClass {=.counter}
}
}
\\ here we merge groups
Rem : Marshal1=AnyMarshal()
Marshal2=AnyMarshal()
Marshal3=AnyMarshal()
\\ So now we see counters (three zero)
Print Marshal1, Marshal2, Marshal3 \\ 0, 0, 0
\\ Now we prepare Alfa and Alfa.Beta groups
Group Alfa {
Group Beta {
Function SuperClass.Counter {
For SuperClass {
=.counter
}
}
}
Module PrintData {
For SuperClass {
Print .counter, This.Beta.SuperClass.Counter()
}
}
}
\\ some marshaling to counters
Marshal1.inc
Marshal2.inc
Marshal2.inc
Marshal3.inc
\\ lets print results
Print Marshal1, Marshal2, Marshal3 \\ 1 2 1
\\ Calling Alfa.PrintData
Alfa.PrintData \\ 1 2
\\ Merging a group in a group make a change to superclass pointer inside group
Alfa.Beta=B2 \\ change supeclass
Alfa.PrintData \\ 1 1
For i=1 to 10 : Marshal3.inc : Next i
Alfa.PrintData \\ 1 11
Alfa.Beta=B1 \\ change supeclass
Alfa.PrintData \\ 1 2
Epsilon=Alfa
Print Valid(@alfa as epsilon), Valid(@alfa.beta as epsilon.beta) \\ -1 -1
Epsilon.PrintData \\ 1 2
Alfa.Beta=B2 \\ change supeclass
Alfa.PrintData \\ 1 11
Epsilon.PrintData \\ 1 2
\\ validation being for top group superclass and all members if are same
\\ but not for inner superclasses. This maybe change in later revisions of language.
Print Valid(@alfa as epsilon), Valid(@alfa.beta as epsilon.beta) \\ -1 0
}
}
Dim A(10)
A(3)=zz()
A(3).bb
Report {
there is no super like java super in M2000 when we use inheritance through classes
see Superclass (example SUP) which is something differnent
}
class Shape {
private:
super.X, super.Y
Function super.toString$(a=10) {
="Shape(" + str$(.super.X,"") + ", " + str$(.super.Y,"") + ")"
}
public:
Module final setPosition (px, py) {
.super.X <= px
.super.Y <= py
}
Function toString$() {
=.super.toString$()
}
}
class MoveShape {
Module MoveRelative(xr, yr) {
.super.X+=xr
.super.Y+=yr
}
}
class Circle as MoveShape as Shape {
private:
radius
public:
Module setRadius (r) {
.radius <= r
}
Function toString$() {
= .super.toString$() + ": Circle(" + str$(.radius,"") + ")"
}
}
class Rectangle as MoveShape as Shape {
private:
height, width
public:
Module MoveLeftSide (p as *Rectangle) {
\\ for same type objects private members are like public
for This, p {
.super.X<=..super.X+..width
.super.Y<=..super.Y
}
}
module setDimensions (h,w) {
.height <= h
.width <= w
}
Function toString$() {
= .super.toString$() + ": Rectangle(" + str$(.height,"") + " x " + str$(.width,"") + ")"
}
}
c =Circle()
r = Rectangle()
r.setPosition 1, 2
r.setDimensions 50, 50
c.setPosition 3, 4
c.setRadius 10
Print r.tostring$()
Print c.tostring$()
r.MoveRelative 100,100
c.MoveRelative -50,-50
Print r.tostring$()
Print c.tostring$()
Report {
wokring with pointers like in c++
pointers in M2000 are objects, so null pointer (pc->0&) isn't a zero, but an empty Group (object)
}
pc->circle()
pr->rectangle()
pr=>setPosition 1, 2
pr=>setDimensions 50, 50
pc=>setPosition 3, 4
pc=>setRadius 10
Print pr=>tostring$()
Print pc=>tostring$()
\\ we can open up to ten objects (from one to ten dots, normaly one to three)
\\ if we use nestef for object {} also we have up to ten objects in total
\\ every for object {} is an area for temporary definitions, after exit from brackets
\\ any new definition erased.
For pr, pc {
.MoveRelative 100,100
..MoveRelative -50,-50
Print .tostring$()
Print ..tostring$()
}
pr2->rectangle()
pr2=>SetDimensions 30, 30
pr2=>MoveLeftSide pr
Print pr2=>toString$()
MATLAB
There are two ways to declare classes in MATLAB: with a classdef or without it. First you must create a folder named after the class type that you are defining with an "@" appended to the front, e.g. "@LinkedList", in your MATLAB root directory. In this folder you put all of the class methods and, if you have it, the classdef. Any MATLAB buitlin methods can be overloaded for any class you define. For example, if you want to overload the "+" operator, create an .m file in the class folder named "plus.m". Furthermore, all class variables have to be generated in the class constructor if a classdef is not going to be used.
Below are two examples of classes declared in MATLAB. GenericClass is defined without a classdef. GenericClass2 is defined with a classdef. The classes both do the exact same thing, the only difference between them is how they are defined.
@GenericClass
GenericClass.m: Class Constructor
function GenericClassInstance = GenericClass(varargin)
if isempty(varargin) %No input arguments
GenericClassInstance.classVariable = 0; %Generates a struct
else
GenericClassInstance.classVariable = varargin{1}; %Generates a struct
end
%Converts the struct to a class of type GenericClass
GenericClassInstance = class(GenericClassInstance,'GenericClass');
end
getValue.m:
%Get function
function value = getValue(GenericClassInstance)
value = GenericClassInstance.classVariable;
end
setValue.m:
%Set function
function GenericClassInstance = setValue(GenericClassInstance,newValue)
GenericClassInstance.classVariable = newValue;
end
display.m: This method overloads the "disp()" command
function display(GenericClassInstance)
disp(sprintf('%f',GenericClassInstance.classVariable));
end
Sample Usage:
>> myClass = GenericClass(3)
3.000000
>> myClass = setValue(myClass,pi)
3.141593
>> getValue(myClass)
ans =
3.141592653589793
@GenericClass2 GenericClass2.m: This is the classdef, it includes the class constructor as well as class variables and methods.
classdef GenericClass2
properties
classVariable
end %properties
methods
%Class constructor
function objectInstance = GenericClass2(varargin)
if isempty(varargin) %No input arguments
objectInstance.classVariable = 0;
else
objectInstance.classVariable = varargin{1};
end
end
%Set function
function setValue(GenericClassInstance,newValue)
GenericClassInstance.classVariable = newValue;
%MATLAB magic that changes the object in the scope that called
%this set function.
assignin('caller',inputname(1),GenericClassInstance);
end
end %methods
end
getValue.m:
%Get function
function value = getValue(GenericClassInstance)
value = GenericClassInstance.classVariable;
end
display.m: This method overloads the "disp()" command
function display(GenericClassInstance)
disp(sprintf('%f',GenericClassInstance.classVariable));
end
Sample Usage:
>> myClass = GenericClass2(3)
3.000000
>> setValue(myClass,pi)
>> getValue(myClass)
ans =
3.141592653589793
MiniScript
// MiniScript is prototype based
Weapon = { "name": "Sword", "damage": 3 }
Weapon.slice = function()
print "Did " + self.damage + " damage with " + self.name
end function
wep = new Weapon // Same as: wep = { "__isa": Weapon }
wep.name = "Lance"
wep.slice
MiniZinc
MiniZinc does not have classes, but they can be simulated using functions with constraints:
% define a Rectangle "class"
var int: Rectangle(var int: width, var int: height) =
let {
var int: this;
constraint Type(this) = Rectangle; %define the "type" of the instance
%define some "instance methods"
constraint area(this) = width*height;
constraint width(this) = width;
constraint height(this) = height;
} in this;
%this enum should contain the list of class names
enum Type = {Rectangle};
function var Type: Type(var int:a);
%declare the "instance methods"
function var int: area(var int:this) = let {var int:result;} in result;
function var int: height(var int:a) = let {var int:result;} in result;
function var int: width(var int:a) = let {var int:result;} in result;
%create an instance of the "class"
var int: rect = Rectangle(3,4);
var int: area1 = area(rect);
solve satisfy;
% print the area of the rectangle
output [show(area1),"\n"];
Nanoquery
class MyClass
declare name
// constructors are methods with the same name as the class
def MyClass(name)
this.name = name
end
def getName()
return name
end
end
// instantiate a new MyClass object
inst = new(MyClass, "name string goes here")
// display the name value
println inst.getName()
Nemerle
public class MyClass
{
public this() { } // the constructor in Nemerle is always named 'this'
public MyVariable : int
{
get;
set;
}
public MyMethod() : void
{
}
}
def myInstance = MyClass(); // no 'new' keyword needed
myInstance.MyVariable = 42; // set MyVariable
System.Console.WriteLine($"My variable is $(myInstance.MyVariable)") // get MyVariable
NetRexx
class ClassExample
properties private -- class scope
foo = int
properties public -- publicly visible
bar = boolean
properties indirect -- generates bean patterns
baz = String()
method main(args=String[]) static -- main method
clsex = ClassExample() -- instantiate
clsex.foo = 42
clsex.baz = 'forty-two'
clsex.bar = 0 -- boolean false
clsex.test(clsex.foo)
clsex.test(clsex.bar)
clsex.test(clsex.baz)
method test(s=int)
aap = 1 -- local (stack) variable
say s aap
method test(s=String)
noot = 2
say s noot
method test(s=boolean)
mies = 3
say s mies
Nim
type MyClass = object
name: int
proc initMyClass(): MyClass =
result.name = 2
proc someMethod(m: var MyClass) =
m.name = 1
var mc = initMyClass()
mc.someMethod()
type
Gender = enum male, female, other
MyOtherClass = object
name: string
gender: Gender
age: Natural
proc initMyOtherClass(name; gender = female; age = 50): auto =
MyOtherClass(name: name, gender: gender, age: age)
var person1 = initMyOtherClass("Jane")
echo person1.name, " ", person1.gender, " ", person1.age # Jane female 50
var person2 = initMyOtherClass("John", male, 23)
echo person2.name, " ", person2.gender, " ", person2.age # John male 23
Oberon-2
MODULE M;
TYPE
T = POINTER TO TDesc;
TDesc = RECORD
x: INTEGER
END;
PROCEDURE New*(): T;
VAR t: T;
BEGIN
NEW(t); t.x := 0;
RETURN t
END New;
PROCEDURE (t: T) Increment*;
BEGIN
INC(t.x)
END Increment;
END M.
Exported procedures are marked with an asterisk (*). There is nothing special about the constructor New, it is just a function that returns a new object of type T. The name of the method receiver can also be chosen freely. INC is a predeclared procedure that increments its argument.
Objeck
bundle Default {
class MyClass {
@var : Int;
New() {
}
method : public : SomeMethod() ~ Nil {
@var := 1;
}
method : public : SetVar(var : Int) ~ Nil {
@var := var;
}
method : public : GetVar() ~ Int {
return @var;
}
}
class Test {
function : Main(args : String[]) ~ Nil {
inst := MyClass->New();
inst->GetVar()->PrintLine();
inst->SomeMethod();
inst->GetVar()->PrintLine();
inst->SetVar(15);
inst->GetVar()->PrintLine();
}
}
}
Object Pascal
- Note: This is not part of standard Pascal, but Turbo Pascal specific
type
MyClass = object
variable: integer;
constructor init;
destructor done;
procedure someMethod;
end;
constructor MyClass.init;
begin
variable := 0;
end;
procedure MyClass.someMethod;
begin
variable := 1;
end;
var
instance: MyClass; { as variable }
pInstance: ^MyClass; { on free store }
begin
{ create instances }
instance.init;
new(pInstance, init); { alternatively: pInstance := new(MyClass, init); }
{ call method }
instance.someMethod;
pInstance^.someMethod;
{ get rid of the objects }
instance.done;
dispose(pInstance, done);
end;
Objective-C
Interface:
// There are no class variables, so static variables are used.
static int myClassVariable = 0;
@interface MyClass : NSObject
{
int variable; // instance variable
}
- (int)variable; // Typical accessor - you should use the same name as the variable
@end
Implementation:
@implementation MyClass
// Was not declared because init is defined in NSObject
- (instancetype)init
{
if (self = [super init]) {
variable = 0; // not strictly necessary as all instance variables are initialized to zero
}
return self;
}
- (int)variable
{
return variable;
}
@end
Using the class:
// Creating an instance
MyClass *mc = [[MyClass alloc] init];
// Sending a message
[mc variable];
OCaml
class my_class =
object (self)
val mutable variable = 0
method some_method = variable <- 1
end
Using the class:
# let instance = new my_class;; val instance : my_class = <obj> # instance#some_method;; - : unit = ()
Oforth
Class creation
Object Class new: MyClass(att)
MyClass method: initialize(v) v := att ;
Usage : instantiation
MyClass new("some value")
Ol
Otus Lisp have no classes support.
ooRexx
ooRexx classes are defined using directives. Only methods of the class can directly access instance variables to avoid fragile base class problems, methods can only access variables at the level of the class hierarchy they are defined. ::attribute directives create setter and getter methods that allow instance variables to be accessed in other contexts.
p = .point~new
c = .circle~new
p~print
c~print
::class point
::method init
expose x y
use strict arg x = 0, y = 0 -- defaults to 0 for any non-specified coordinates
::attribute x
::attribute y
::method print
expose x y
say "A point at location ("||x","y")"
::class circle subclass point
::method init
expose radius
use strict arg x = 0, y = 0, radius = 0
self~init:super(x, y) -- call superclass constructor
::attribute radius
::method print
expose radius
say "A circle of radius" radius "centered at location ("||self~x","self~y")"
OxygenBasic
Class MyObject
static int count 'statics are private
int a,b,c
bstring s
method constructor(int pa,pb,pc)
s="constructed"
a=pa : b=pb : c=pc
count++
end method
method destructor()
del s
end method
method sum() as int
return a+b+c
end method
end class
new MyObject v(2,4,6)
print "Sum: " v.sum
del v
Oz
Classes are created at runtime and first-class values.
declare
class Something
feat
name %% immutable, public attribute (called a "feature")
attr
count %% mutable, private attribute
%% public method which is used as an initializer
meth init(N)
self.name = N
count := 0
end
%% public method
meth increase
count := @count + 1
end
end
in
%% create an instance
Object = {New Something init("object")}
%% call a method
{Object increase}
Pascal
See Delphi
PascalABC.NET
type Person = class
Name: string;
Age: integer;
public
constructor (Name: string; Age: integer);
begin
Self.Name := Name;
Self.Age := Age;
end;
procedure Output := Print($'{Name} {Age}');
end;
begin
var p := new Person('John',18);
p.Output
end.
- Output:
John 18
Perl
The implementation (there are no declarations) of a class using the standard object system:
{
# a class is a package (i.e. a namespace) with methods in it
package MyClass;
# a constructor is a function that returns a blessed reference
sub new {
my $class = shift;
bless {variable => 0}, $class;
# the instance object is a hashref in disguise.
# (it can be a ref to anything.)
}
# an instance method is a function that takes an object as first argument.
# the -> invocation syntax takes care of that nicely, see Usage paragraph below.
sub some_method {
my $self = shift;
$self->{variable} = 1;
}
}
This is the same using the Moose object system:
{
package MyClass;
use Moose;
has 'variable' => (is => 'rw', default => 0);
# constructor and accessor methods are added automatically
sub some_method {
my $self = shift;
$self->variable(1);
}
}
This is the same class using the MooseX::Declare extention:
use MooseX::Declare;
class MyClass {
has 'variable' => (is => 'rw', default => 0);
method some_method {
$self->variable(1);
}
}
All of the above classes can be used the same way:
my $instance = MyClass->new; # invoke constructor method
$instance->some_method; # invoke method on object instance
# instance deallocates when the last reference falls out of scope
Phix
without js -- (else cffi namespaces error, classes not supported by pwa/p2js anyway) requires ("1.0.2") -- (free up the temp used in the v.show() call) class five nullable private integer n = 3 function get_n() return n end function procedure set_n(integer n) this.n = n end procedure procedure show() printf(1,"show: n is %d\n",{n}) end procedure function five(integer n = 4) printf(1,"constructor five(%d) called\n",n) this.n = n return this end function procedure ~five() printf(1,"destructor ~five(%d) called\n",n) end procedure end class five v = new({5}) assert(v.n=5) v.n = 6 v.show() v=NULL
- Output:
constructor five(5) called show: n is 6 destructor ~five(6) called
Obviously when n is public then neither get_n() nor set_n() is needed.
When there is no constructor method, new() args get assigned in order, so here n would still become 5.
PHL
module classes;
extern printf;
class @MyClass {
field @Integer myField { get:get_myField, set:set_myField };
new [
this.set_myField(2);
]
@Void method [
this.set_myField(this::get_myField + 1);
]
};
@Integer main [
var obj = new @MyClass;
printf("obj.myField: %i\n", obj::get_myField);
obj::method;
printf("obj.myField: %i\n", obj::get_myField);
return 0;
]
PHP
class MyClass {
public static $classVar;
public $instanceVar; // can also initialize it here
function __construct() {
$this->instanceVar = 0;
}
function someMethod() {
$this->instanceVar = 1;
self::$classVar = 3;
}
}
$myObj = new MyClass();
PicoLisp
(class +Rectangle)
# dx dy
(dm area> () # Define a a method that calculates the rectangle's area
(* (: dx) (: dy)) )
(println # Create a rectangle, and print its area
(area> (new '(+Rectangle) 'dx 3 'dy 4)) )
Pop11
Object system is implemented as a library, so we must first load it.
uses objectclass;
define :class MyClass;
slot value = 1;
enddefine;
Defining class MyClass automatically defines two constructors, newMyClass and consMyClass and slot (instance variable) accessors, so we can immediately start using our new class:
;;; Construct instance with default slot values
lvars instance1 = newMyClass();
;;; Construct instance with explicitely given slot values
lvars instance2 = consMyClass(15);
;;; Print slot value using dot notation
instance1.value =>
instance2.value =>
;;; Print slot value using funtional notation
value(instance1) =>
;;; Change slot value
12 -> value(instance1);
;;; Print it
value(instance1) =>
We can add methods at any time (even after creating an instance):
define :method reset(x : MyClass);
0 -> value(x);
enddefine;
reset(instance1);
;;; Print it
instance1 =>
Portugol
programa {
inclua biblioteca Objetos --> obj
// "constructor" returns address of object
funcao inteiro my_class_new(inteiro value) {
inteiro this = obj.criar_objeto()
obj.atribuir_propriedade(this, "variable", value) // add property to object
retorne this
}
// "method" takes the address returned by criar_objeto
funcao my_class_some_method(inteiro this) {
my_class_set_variable(this, 1)
}
// "setter"
funcao my_class_set_variable(inteiro this, inteiro value) {
obj.atribuir_propriedade(this, "variable", value)
}
// "getter"
funcao inteiro my_class_get_variable(inteiro this) {
retorne obj.obter_propriedade_tipo_inteiro(this, "variable")
}
funcao inicio() {
inteiro this = my_class_new(0)
escreva("variable = ", my_class_get_variable(this), "\n")
my_class_some_method(this)
escreva("variable = ", my_class_get_variable(this), "\n")
my_class_set_variable(this, 99)
escreva("variable = ", my_class_get_variable(this), "\n")
obj.liberar_objeto(this)
}
}
PowerShell
Prior to PowerShell 5, native class definition was not supported in PowerShell. But you could define classes in PowerShell using C#, JavaScript, or VisualBasic.
Add-Type -Language CSharp -TypeDefinition @'
public class MyClass
{
public MyClass()
{
}
public void SomeMethod()
{
}
private int _variable;
public int Variable
{
get { return _variable; }
set { _variable = value; }
}
public static void Main()
{
// instantiate it
MyClass instance = new MyClass();
// invoke the method
instance.SomeMethod();
// set the variable
instance.Variable = 99;
// get the variable
System.Console.WriteLine( "Variable=" + instance.Variable.ToString() );
}
}
'@
Basic syntax
class MyClass
{
[type]$MyProperty1
[type]$MyProperty2 = "Default value"
# Constructor
MyClass( [type]$MyParameter1, [type]$MyParameter2 )
{
# Code
}
# Method ( [returntype] defaults to [void] )
[returntype] MyMethod( [type]$MyParameter3, [type]$MyParameter4 )
{
# Code
}
}
Example class
class Banana
{
# Properties
[string]$Color
[boolean]$Peeled
# Default constructor
Banana()
{
$This.Color = "Green"
}
# Constructor
Banana( [boolean]$Peeled )
{
$This.Color = "Green"
$This.Peeled = $Peeled
}
# Method
Ripen()
{
If ( $This.Color -eq "Green" ) { $This.Color = "Yellow" }
Else { $This.Color = "Brown" }
}
# Method
[boolean] IsReadyToEat()
{
If ( $This.Color -eq "Yellow" -and $This.Peeled ) { return $True }
Else { return $False }
}
}
Using the example class
$MyBanana = [banana]::New()
$YourBanana = [banana]::New( $True )
$YourBanana.Ripen()
If ( -not $MyBanana.IsReadyToEat() -and $YourBanana.IsReadyToEat() )
{ $MySecondBanana = $YourBanana }
Processing
class ProgrammingLanguage
{
// instance variable:
private String name;
// constructor (let's use it to give the instance variable a value):
public ProgrammingLanguage(String name)
{
this.name = name;
// note use of "this" to distinguish the instance variable from the argument
}
// a method:
public void sayHello()
{
println("Hello from the programming language " + name);
// the method has no argument or local variable called "name", so we can omit the "this"
}
}
How to use it:
// instantiate the class:
ProgrammingLanguage processing = new ProgrammingLanguage("Processing");
// call the method:
processing.sayHello();
- Output:
Hello from the programming language Processing
PureBasic
Generic version
Interface OO_Interface ; Interface for any value of this type
Get.i()
Set(Value.i)
ToString.s()
Destroy()
EndInterface
Structure OO_Structure ; The *VTable structure
Get.i
Set.i
ToString.i
Destroy.i
EndStructure
Structure OO_Var
*VirtualTable.OO_Structure
Value.i
EndStructure
Procedure OO_Get(*Self.OO_Var)
ProcedureReturn *Self\Value
EndProcedure
Procedure OO_Set(*Self.OO_Var, n)
*Self\Value = n
EndProcedure
Procedure.s OO_ToString(*Self.OO_Var)
ProcedureReturn Str(*Self\Value)
EndProcedure
Procedure Create_OO()
*p.OO_Var=AllocateMemory(SizeOf(OO_Var))
If *p
*p\VirtualTable=?VTable
EndIf
ProcedureReturn *p
EndProcedure
Procedure OO_Destroy(*Self.OO_Var)
FreeMemory(*Self)
EndProcedure
DataSection
VTable:
Data.i @OO_Get()
Data.i @OO_Set()
Data.i @OO_ToString()
Data.i @OO_Destroy()
EndDataSection
;- Test the code
*Foo.OO_Interface = Create_OO()
*Foo\Set(341)
MessageRequester("Info", "Foo = " + *Foo\ToString() )
*Foo\Destroy()
Simple OOP Version
Using the open-source precompiler SimpleOOP.
Class Foo
Private Value.i
BeginPublic
Method Init()
; Any needed code goes here
EndMethod
Method Release()
; Any code befoe freeing the object goes here
EndMethod
Method Get()
MethodReturn This\Value
EndMethod
Method Set(n)
This\Value = n
EndMethod
Method.s ToString()
MethodReturn Str(This\Value)
EndMethod
EndPublic
EndClass
;- Test the code
*Demo.foo = NewObject.foo()
*Demo\Set(4)
MessageRequester("Info", "Val= " + *Demo\ToString())
Python
class MyClass:
name2 = 2 # Class attribute
def __init__(self):
"""
Constructor (Technically an initializer rather than a true "constructor")
"""
self.name1 = 0 # Instance attribute
def someMethod(self):
"""
Method
"""
self.name1 = 1
MyClass.name2 = 3
myclass = MyClass() # class name, invoked as a function is the constructor syntax.
class MyOtherClass:
count = 0 # Population of "MyOtherClass" objects
def __init__(self, name, gender="Male", age=None):
"""
One initializer required, others are optional (with different defaults)
"""
MyOtherClass.count += 1
self.name = name
self.gender = gender
if age is not None:
self.age = age
def __del__(self):
MyOtherClass.count -= 1
person1 = MyOtherClass("John")
print person1.name, person1.gender # "John Male"
print person1.age # Raises AttributeError exception!
person2 = MyOtherClass("Jane", "Female", 23)
print person2.name, person2.gender, person2.age # "Jane Female 23"
Python allows for very flexible argument passing including normal named parameters, defaulted/optional named parameters, up to one "varargs" tuple, and any number of keywords arguments (which are all passed in the form of a single dictionary (associative array), and any non-ambiguous combination of these). All types of argument passing for functions can also be used for object instantiation/initialization (passed to the special __init__() method) as shown.
New-style classes inherit from "object" or any descendant of the "object" class:
class MyClass(object):
...
These "new-style" classes support some features which were unavailable in "classic classes". New features include a __new__() with lower level control over object instantiation, metaclass support, static methods, class methods, "properties" (managed attributes) and "slots" (attribute restrictions).
R
R has (at least) 5 different object oriented systems. S3 and S4 correspond to different versions of the S language, from which R was derived. See, for example, this presentation by Freidrich Leisch for a more thorough introduction to S3 and S4 classes. Both these class systems are in use, and ship with the standard R distribution. The OOP, R.oo and proto packages provide other systems.
S3
S3 provides a very simple class system designed to be easily used interactively.
#You define a class simply by setting the class attribute of an object
circS3 <- list(radius=5.5, centre=c(3, 4.2))
class(circS3) <- "circle"
#plot is a generic function, so we can define a class specific method by naming it plot.classname
plot.circle <- function(x, ...)
{
t <- seq(0, 2*pi, length.out=200)
plot(x$centre[1] + x$radius*cos(t),
x$centre[2] + x$radius*sin(t),
type="l", ...)
}
plot(circS3)
S4
S4 is a more formal class system that provides validity checking and a way to define different methods for different input signatures.
setClass("circle",
representation(
radius="numeric",
centre="numeric"),
prototype(
radius=1,
centre=c(0,0)))
#Instantiate class with some arguments
circS4 <- new("circle", radius=5.5)
#Set other data slots (properties)
circS4@centre <- c(3,4.2)
#Define a method
setMethod("plot", #signature("circle"),
signature(x="circle", y="missing"),
function(x, ...)
{
t <- seq(0, 2*pi, length.out=200)
#Note the use of @ instead of $
plot(x@centre[1] + x@radius*cos(t),
x@centre[2] + x@radius*sin(t),
type="l", ...)
})
plot(circS4)
Racket
Racket programs heavily use functions, but classes and objects are available as well:
#lang racket
(define fish%
(class object%
(super-new)
;; an instance variable & constructor argument
(init-field size)
;; a new method
(define/public (eat)
(displayln "gulp!"))))
;; constructing an instance
(new fish% [size 50])
Raku
(formerly Perl 6)
class Camel { has Int $.humps = 1; }
my Camel $a .= new;
say $a.humps; # Automatically generated accessor method.
my Camel $b .= new: humps => 2;
say $b.humps;
A more complex example:
class Butterfly {
has Int $!age; # With the ! twigil, no public accessor method is generated
has Str $.name;
has Str $.color;
has Bool $.wings;
submethod BUILD(:$!name = 'Camelia', :$!age = 2, :$!color = 'pink') {
# BUILD is called by bless. Its primary use is to to control
# object initialization.
$!wings = $!age > 1;
}
method flap() {
say ($.wings
?? 'Watch out for that hurricane!'
!! 'No wings to flap.');
}
}
my Butterfly $a .= new: age => 5;
say "Name: {$a.name}, Color: {$a.color}";
$a.flap;
my Butterfly $b .= new(name => 'Osgood', age => 4);
say "Name: {$b.name}, Color: {$b.color}";
$b.flap;
RapidQ
TYPE MyClass EXTENDS QObject
Variable AS INTEGER
CONSTRUCTOR
Variable = 0
END CONSTRUCTOR
SUB someMethod
MyClass.Variable = 1
END SUB
END TYPE
' create an instance
DIM instance AS MyClass
' invoke the method
instance.someMethod
Raven
Build classes:
class Alpha
'I am Alpha.' as greeting
define say_hello
greeting print
class Beta extend Alpha
'I am Beta!' as greeting
Execute classes to create objects:
Alpha as alpha
Beta as beta
Call methods:
alpha.say_hello
beta.say_hello
Result:
I am Alpha.
I am Beta!
REALbasic
This class "contains" a number ('TheNumber'). The Number methods allow read and write access to the number, and provide an example of method overloading as well as use of the "Assigns" keyword.
Class NumberContainer
Private TheNumber As Integer
Sub Constructor(InitialNumber As Integer)
TheNumber = InitialNumber
End Sub
Function Number() As Integer
Return TheNumber
End Function
Sub Number(Assigns NewNumber As Integer)
TheNumber = NewNumber
End Sub
End Class
Dim num As New NumberContainer(1) ' call the constructor
num.Number = num.Number + 5 ' call both Number methods
REBOL
rebol [
Title: "Classes"
URL: http://rosettacode.org/wiki/Classes
]
; Objects are derived from the base 'object!' type. REBOL uses a
; prototyping object system, so any object can be treated as a class,
; from which to derive others.
cowboy: make object! [
name: "Tex" ; Instance variable.
hi: does [ ; Method.
print [self/name ": Howdy!"]]
]
; I create two instances of the 'cowboy' class.
tex: make cowboy []
roy: make cowboy [
name: "Roy" ; Override 'name' property.
]
print "Say 'hello', boys:" tex/hi roy/hi
print ""
; Now I'll subclass 'cowboy'. Subclassing looks a lot like instantiation:
legend: make cowboy [
deed: "..."
boast: does [
print [self/name ": I once" self/deed "!"]]
]
; Instancing the legend:
pecos: make legend [name: "Pecos Bill" deed: "lassoed a twister"]
print "Howdy, Pecos!" pecos/hi
print "Tell us about yourself?" pecos/boast
- Output:
Say 'hello', boys: Tex : Howdy! Roy : Howdy! Howdy, Pecos! Pecos Bill : Howdy! Tell us about yourself? Pecos Bill : I once lassoed a twister !
Rhovas
Rhovas has both structs and classes. Structs are used for structured data (e.g. Kotlin data classes or Java records) however have some additional restrictions like fields always being part of the API (see earlier link).
An example of a struct for (Decimal
) Vector
s. Some notes:
- Fields are often mutable (
var
) and use mutability permissions to represent immutable structs rather than defining immutable fields directly. - Methods are defined with a first parameter of
this
. The type is optional, but can be specified to support more nuanced subtypes as needed (e.g. with generics).
struct Vector {
var x: Decimal;
var y: Decimal;
func magnitude(this): Decimal {
return Math.sqrt(this.x * this.x + this.y * this.y);
}
}
The next step up from structs are classes. Classes support the full range of Object-Oriented capabilities (e.g. encapsulation and inheritance) and are primarily for maintaining invariants.
For example, a hypothetical UnitVector
class has an invariant between x
and y
, requiring a direction with non-zero magnitude. One option is to use a class to maintain that invariant:
- The example below uses immutable fields and validates the invariant in the constructor, but in practice there would be mutation involved.
require direct.x != 0.0 ...
validates preconditions for the directionVector
.this { x: ..., y: ... };
initializes object fields in a single action to prevent partially constructed instances from being leaked (which would break invariants) and is less restrictive than similar constructors in Kotlin/Java.
class UnitVector {
val x: Decimal;
val y: Decimal;
init(direction: Vector) {
require direction.x != 0.0 || direction.y != 0.0;
val magnitude = direction.magnitude();
this { x: direction.x / magnitude, y: direction.y / magnitude };
}
}
Ring
Simple program to define class and create an object
New point { x=10 y=20 z=30 print() }
Class Point x y z func print see x + nl + y + nl + z + nl
The previous program can be written in another way
New point # create new object using the point class
{ # access the new object attributes and methods
x = 10 # set the x attribute to 10
y = 20 # set the y attribute to 20
z = 30 # set the z attribute to 30
print() # call the print method
} # end of object access
Class Point # define the Point class
x y z # the class contains three attributes x, y & z
func print # define the print method
see x + nl + # print the x attribute
y + nl + # print the y attribute
z + nl # print the z attribute
Ruby
class MyClass
def initialize
@instance_var = 0
end
def add_1
@instance_var += 1
end
end
my_class = MyClass.new #allocates an object and calls it's initialize method, then returns it.
Rust
struct MyClass {
variable: i32, // member variable = instance variable
}
impl MyClass {
// member function = method, with its implementation
fn some_method(&mut self) {
self.variable = 1;
}
// constructor, with its implementation
fn new() -> MyClass {
// Here could be more code.
MyClass { variable: 0 }
}
}
fn main () {
// Create an instance in the stack.
let mut instance = MyClass::new();
// Create an instance in the heap.
let mut p_instance = Box::new(MyClass::new());
// Invoke method on both istances,
instance.some_method();
p_instance.some_method();
// Both instances are automatically deleted when their scope ends.
}
Sather
class CLASSTEST is
readonly attr x:INT; -- give a public getter, not a setter
private attr y:INT; -- no getter, no setter
attr z:INT; -- getter and setter
-- constructor
create(x, y, z:INT):CLASSTEST is
res :CLASSTEST := new; -- or res ::= new
res.x := x;
res.y := y;
res.z := z;
return res;
end;
-- a getter for the private y summed to s
getPrivateY(s:INT):INT is
-- y is not shadowed so we can write y instead of
-- self.y
return y + s;
end;
end;
class MAIN is
main is
test ::= #CLASSTEST(1, 2, 3);
-- the previous line is syntactic sugar for
-- test :CLASSTEST := CLASSTEST::create(1, 2, 3);
#OUT + test.z + "\n"; -- we can access z
test.z := 25; -- we can set z
#OUT + test.x + "\n"; -- we can get x
-- test.x := 5; -- we cannot set x
#OUT + test.getPrivateY(0) + "\n";
end;
end;
Scala
Scala can be highly object-oriented and if so the task is trivial. In some cases the constructor and instance variables do not have to be explicitly declared; this example shows two ways each to make constructors and instance variables.
/** This class implicitly includes a constructor which accepts an Int and
* creates "val variable1: Int" with that value.
*/
class MyClass(val myMethod: Int) { // Acts like a getter, getter automatically generated.
var variable2 = "asdf" // Another instance variable; a public var this time
def this() = this(0) // An auxilliary constructor that instantiates with a default value
}
object HelloObject {
val s = "Hello" // Not private, so getter auto-generated
}
/** Demonstrate use of our example class.
*/
object Call_an_object_method extends App {
val s = "Hello"
val m = new MyClass()
val n = new MyClass(3)
println(HelloObject.s) // prints "Hello" by object getterHelloObject
println(m.myMethod) // prints 0
println(n.myMethod) // prints 3
}
Scheme
From Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs
(define (withdraw amount)
(if (>= balance amount)
(begin (set! balance (- balance amount))
balance)
"Insufficient funds"))
(define (deposit amount)
(set! balance (+ balance amount))
balance)
(define (dispatch m)
(cond ((eq? m 'withdraw) withdraw)
((eq? m 'deposit) deposit)
(else (error "Unknown request -- MAKE-ACCOUNT"
m))))
dispatch)
Sidef
class MyClass(instance_var) {
method add(num) {
instance_var += num;
}
}
var obj = MyClass(3); # `instance_var` will be set to 3
obj.add(5); # calls the add() method
say obj.instance_var; # prints the value of `instance_var`: 8
Simula
As the first object-oriented language, Simula introduced both the term class and the object.method(arguments) syntax that many other languages on this page employ. Notice that the object must be declared using ref (reference, i.e. pointer) before it can be instantiated.
BEGIN
CLASS MyClass(instanceVariable);
INTEGER instanceVariable;
BEGIN
PROCEDURE doMyMethod(n);
INTEGER n;
BEGIN
Outint(instanceVariable, 5);
Outtext(" + ");
Outint(n, 5);
Outtext(" = ");
Outint(instanceVariable + n, 5);
Outimage
END;
END;
REF(MyClass) myObject;
myObject :- NEW MyClass(5);
myObject.doMyMethod(2)
END
- Output:
5 + 2 = 7
Slate
Slate objects operate as prototypes with multi-methods:
prototypes define: #MyPrototype &parents: {Cloneable} &slots: #(instanceVar).
MyPrototype traits addSlot: #classVar.
x@(MyPrototype traits) new
[
x clone `>> [instanceVar: 0. ]
].
x@(MyPrototype traits) someMethod
[
x instanceVar = 1 /\ (x classVar = 3)
].
Smalltalk
Object subclass: #MyClass
instanceVariableNames: 'instanceVar'
classVariableNames: 'classVar'
poolDictionaries: ''
category: 'Testing' !
!MyClass class methodsFor: 'instance creation'!
new
^self basicNew instanceVar := 0 ! !
!MyClass methodsFor: 'testing'!
someMethod
^self instanceVar = 1; classVar = 3 ! !
MyClass new someMethod!
SuperCollider
SpecialObject {
classvar a = 42, <b = 0, <>c; // Class variables. 42 and 0 are default values.
var <>x, <>y; // Instance variables.
// Note: variables are private by default. In the above, "<" creates a getter, ">" creates a setter
*new { |value|
^super.new.init(value) // constructor is a class method. typically calls some instance method to set up, here "init"
}
init { |value|
x = value;
y = sqrt(squared(a) + squared(b))
}
// a class method
*randomizeAll {
a = 42.rand;
b = 42.rand;
c = 42.rannd;
}
// an instance method
coordinates {
^Point(x, y) // The "^" means to return the result. If not specified, then the object itself will be returned ("^this")
}
}
Call it:
SpecialObject.randomizeAll;
a = SpecialObject(8);
a.coordinates;
Swift
class MyClass{
// stored property
var variable : Int
/**
* The constructor
*/
init() {
self.variable = 42
}
/**
* A method
*/
func someMethod() {
self.variable = 1
}
}
Instantiate this class using:
MyClass()
Tcl
or
package require TclOO
oo::class create summation {
variable v
constructor {} {
set v 0
}
method add x {
incr v $x
}
method value {} {
return $v
}
destructor {
puts "Ended with value $v"
}
}
set sum [summation new]
puts "Start with [$sum value]"
for {set i 1} {$i <= 10} {incr i} {
puts "Add $i to get [$sum add $i]"
}
$sum destroy
TIScript
TIScript is prototype-based and yet it has classes. Object that was created as an instance of one class can be transformed to the instance of another class by changing its obj.prototype field.
class Car
{
//Constructor function.
function this(brand, weight, price = 0) {
this.brand = brand;
this.weight = weight || 1000; // Resort to default value (with 'or' notation).
this._price = price;
}
property price(v) // computable property, special kind of member function
{
get { return this._price; } // getter section
set { this._price = v; } // setter section
}
function toString() { // member function, method of a Car.
return String.printf("<%s>",this.brand);
}
}
class Truck : Car
{
function this(brand, size) {
super(brand, 2000); // Call of constructor of super class (Car here)
this.size = size; // Custom property for just this object.
}
}
var cars = [ // Some example car objects.
new Car("Mazda"),
new Truck("Volvo", 2, 30000)
];
for (var (i,car) in cars) // TIScript allows enumerate indexes and values
{
stdout.printf("#%d %s $%d %v %v, %v %v", i, car.brand, car.price, car.weight, car.size,
car instanceof Car, car instanceof Truck);
}
- Output:
from console
#1 Mazda 1000 $0 undefined, true false #2 Volvo 2000 $30000 2, true true
Transd
#lang transd
class Point : {
x: Double(),
y: Double(),
@init: (λ v Vector<Double>() (= x (get v 0)) (= y (get v 1))),
print: (λ (textout "Point(" x "; " y ")\n" ))
}
MainModule: {
v_: [[1.0, 2.0], [3.0, 4.0]],
_start: (λ
// creating an instance of class
(with pt Point([5.0, 6.0])
// calling a class' method
(print pt)
)
// creating several instances using data deserialization
(with v Vector<Point>(v_)
(for p in v do (print p))
) )
}
- Output:
Point(5; 6) Point(1; 2) Point(3; 4)
TXR
(defstruct shape ()
cached-area
(:init (self)
(put-line `@self is born!`))
(:fini (self)
(put-line `@self says goodbye!`))
(:method area (self)
(or self.cached-area
(set self.cached-area self.(calc-area)))))
(defstruct circle shape
(radius 1.0)
(:method calc-area (self)
(* %pi% self.radius self.radius)))
(defstruct square shape
(length 1.0)
(:method calc-area (self)
(* self.length self.length)))
- Output:
$ txr -i shapes.tl 1> (let ((s (new circle))) s.(area)) #S(circle cached-area nil radius nil) is born! 3.14159265358979 2> (sys:gc) #S(circle cached-area 3.14159265358979 radius 1.0) says goodbye! t 3>
Notes:
defstruct
andnew
are macros which compile to invocations of the functionsmake-struct-type
andmake-struct
.- The
obj.fun(x, y)
syntax is "halfway Lispified", and looks likeobj.(fun x y)
. This denotes a method call: the functionfun
is retrieved from the object, and passed the arguments(obj x y)
. - The notation
obj.[fun x y]
is similar, but will not passobj
to fun; it is for calling static functions (class utility functions that don't require an instance). a.b.c.d
in TXR Lisp is a syntactic sugar for the expression(qref a b c d)
, where the elements may be compound expressions. Thusobj.(a b).c
is(qref obj (a b) c)
.- There must be no whitespace around the dot:
(a . b)
is the consing dot whereas(a.b)
is the syntax((qref a b))
. - Ambiguity with floating-point numbers isn't allowed. For instance,
a.b.1
elicits an error from the parser (lexical scanner actually).
UNIX Shell
ksh93 has "type variables" which essentially declares a class.
typeset -T Summation_t=(
integer sum
# the constructor
function create {
_.sum=0
}
# a method
function add {
(( _.sum += $1 ))
}
)
Summation_t s
for i in 1 2 3 4 5; do
s.add $i
done
print ${s.sum}
Vala
public class MyClass : Object {
// Instance variable
public int variable;
// Method
public void some_method() {
variable = 24;
}
// Constructor
public MyClass() {
variable = 42;
}
}
void main() {
// Class instance
MyClass instance = new MyClass();
print("%d\n", instance.variable);
instance.some_method();
print("%d\n", instance.variable);
instance.variable = 84;
print("%d\n", instance.variable);
}
VBA
Defining a class
In Visual Basic for Applications a class is defined in a separate Class Module. The name of the class module is the name of the class.
For each property you must supply a "Property Let" routine to set the property (or "Property Set" if the property refers to an object), and a "Property Get" function to get the property.
Methods are represented by Functions in the class module.
A class module can have a constructor - a sub with the special name Class_Initialize
- and a destructor with the special name Class_Terminate
.
This is the contents of a class module "Foo" (like in the Visual Basic .NET example below):
Private Const m_default = 10
Private m_bar As Integer
Private Sub Class_Initialize()
'constructor, can be used to set default values
m_bar = m_default
End Sub
Private Sub Class_Terminate()
'destructor, can be used to do some cleaning up
'here we just print a message
Debug.Print "---object destroyed---"
End Sub
Property Let Bar(value As Integer)
m_bar = value
End Property
Property Get Bar() As Integer
Bar = m_bar
End Property
Function DoubleBar()
m_bar = m_bar * 2
End Function
Function MultiplyBar(x As Integer)
'another method
MultiplyBar = m_bar * x
'Note: instead of using the instance variable m_bar we could refer to the Bar property of this object using the special word "Me":
' MultiplyBar = Me.Bar * x
End Function
Using an object
Objects (e.g. of class Foo) are created and used in "normal" modules.
Public Sub foodemo()
'declare and create separately
Dim f As Foo
Dim f0 As Foo
Set f = New Foo
'set property
f.Bar = 25
'call method
f.DoubleBar
'alternative
Call f.DoubleBar
Debug.Print "f.Bar is "; f.Bar
Debug.Print "Five times f.Bar is "; f.MultiplyBar(5)
'declare and create at the same time
Dim f2 As New Foo
Debug.Print "f2.Bar is "; f2.Bar 'prints default value
'destroy an object
Set f = Nothing
'create an object or not, depending on a random number:
If Rnd() < 0.5 Then
Set f0 = New Foo
End If
'check if object actually exists
If f0 Is Nothing Then
Debug.Print "object f0 does not exist"
Else
Debug.Print "object f0 was created"
End If
'at the end of execution all remaining objects created in this sub will be released.
'this will trigger one or two "object destroyed" messages
'depending on whether f0 was created...
End Sub
- Output:
foodemo f.Bar is 100 Five times f.Bar is 500 f2.Bar is 10 ---object destroyed--- object f0 was created ---object destroyed--- ---object destroyed---
Visual Basic .NET
Defining a class
Class Foo
Private m_Bar As Integer
Public Sub New()
End Sub
Public Sub New(ByVal bar As Integer)
m_Bar = bar
End Sub
Public Property Bar() As Integer
Get
Return m_Bar
End Get
Set(ByVal value As Integer)
m_Bar = value
End Set
End Property
Public Sub DoubleBar()
m_Bar *= 2
End Sub
Public Function MultiplyBar(ByVal x As Integer) As Integer
Return x * Bar
End Function
End Class
Using an object
'Declare and create separately
Dim foo1 As Foo
foo1 = New Foo
'Declare and create at the same time
Dim foo2 As New Foo
'... while passing constructor parameters
Dim foo3 As New Foo(5)
'... and them immediately set properties
Dim foo4 As New Foo With {.Bar = 10}
'Calling a method that returns a value
Console.WriteLine(foo4.MultiplyBar(20))
'Calling a method that performs an action
foo4.DoubleBar()
'Reading/writing properties
Console.WriteLine(foo4.Bar)
foo4.Bar = 1000
Visual FoxPro
Visual FoxPro has a large number of base classes - Session is one of them.
LOCAL o1 As MyClass, o2 As MyClass
*!* Instantiate o1
o1 = NEWOBJECT("MyClass")
o1.ShowInstance()
*!* Instantiate o2
o2 = CREATEOBJECT("MyClass", 2)
o2.ShowInstance()
DEFINE CLASS MyClass As Session
*!* Custom property (protected)
PROTECTED nInstance
nInstance = 0
*!* Constructor
PROCEDURE Init(tnInstance As Integer)
IF VARTYPE(tnInstance) = "N"
THIS.nInstance = tnInstance
ELSE
THIS.nInstance = THIS.nInstance + 1
ENDIF
ENDPROC
*!* Custom Method
PROCEDURE ShowInstance
? "Instance", THIS.nInstance
ENDPROC
ENDDEFINE
- Output:
Instance 1 Instance 2
V (Vlang)
V doesn't use class-based OOP, but you can define methods on types and structs.
- A method is a function with a special receiver argument.
- The receiver appears in its own argument list between the fn keyword and the method name.
- Methods must be in the same module as the receiver type.
- Methods in V (by convention) usually use one letter or short names, and not 'self' or 'this'.
// In this example, the can_register method has a receiver of type 'User' named 'u'.
struct User {
age int
}
// 'can_register' is a method of the 'User' struct above
fn (u User) can_register() bool {
return u.age > 16
}
user := User{
age: 10
}
println(user.can_register()) // "false"
user2 := User{
age: 20
}
println(user2.can_register()) // "true"
V can utilize embedded structs
- This is closer to the concept of mixins in OOP, as oppose to base classes and inheritance.
- With embedding, one struct can use all the methods and fields from another struct.
// Embedded structs
struct Size {
mut:
width int
height int = 2
}
fn (s &Size) area() int {
return s.width * s.height
}
// The 'Size' struct is embedded into the 'Button' struct
struct Button {
Size
title string = "Click me"
}
// With embedding, the struct 'Button' will get all the fields and methods from struct 'Size'
mut button := Button{}
button.width = 3
println("${button.Size.area()}") // 'Size' struct methods can be used by the 'Button' struct
println("${button.area()}") // You can use the method names directly
- Output:
6 6
V supports static type methods (fn [Type name].[function name]), like User.new()
- This allows to organize functions related to a struct
- This is not exactly the same as constructors in class-based OOP
struct User {}
fn User.new() User {
return User{}
}
user := User.new()
Access modifiers and symbol visibility:
- By default; structs, types, functions, and constants are restricted for use only in the same module
- 'pub' (public) is prepended in front or above structs, types, functions, and constants to allow other modules to use them
- '@[noinit]' is a special attribute for use above structs, to restrict initialization to only within the same module or by factory function
// 'pub'
pub struct Public {
pub:
data string
}
struct Private {
data string
}
pub fn public_function() {}
fn private_function() {}
// '@[noinit]'
module sample
@[noinit]
pub struct Information {
pub:
data string
}
// factory function
pub fn new_information(data string) !Information {
if data.len == 0 || data.len > 100 {
return error("data must be between 1 and 100 characters")
}
return Information{
data: data
}
}
Wren
class Bear {
// Constructs a Bear instance passing it a name
// which is stored in the field _name
// automatically created by Wren.
construct new(name) { _name = name }
// Property to get the name
name { _name }
// Method to make a noise.
makeNoise() { System.print("Growl!") }
}
// Create a new Bear instance and assign a reference to it
// to the variable b.
var b = Bear.new("Bruno")
// Print the bear's name.
System.print("The bear is called %(b.name).")
// Make a noise.
b.makeNoise()
- Output:
The bear is called Bruno. Growl!
X86-64 Assembly
UASM 2.52
Details about the UASM class extention can be found here.
option casemap:none
ifndef __SOMECLASS_CLASS__
__SOMECLASS_CLASS__ equ 1
;; Once again, HeapAlloc/Free is REQUIRED by the class extention for windows.
;; Malloc/Free are used by Linux and OSX. So the function prototypes have to
;; be defined somewhere. If you have include files where they're defined, just
;; include them in the usual way and remove the option dllimports.
if @Platform eq 1 ;; Windows 64
;; include windows.inc
;; includelib kernel32.lib
option dllimport:<kernel32>
HeapAlloc proto :qword, :dword, :qword
HeapFree proto :qword, :dword, :qword
ExitProcess proto :dword
GetProcessHeap proto
option dllimport:none
exit equ ExitProcess
elseif @Platform eq 3 ;; Linux 64
;;include libc.inc
malloc proto SYSTEMV :qword
free proto SYSTEMV :qword
exit proto SYSTEMV :dword
endif
printf proto :qword, :VARARG
CLASS someClass
CMETHOD someMethod
ENDMETHODS
var dd ?
ENDCLASS
;; The OS' ABI has an effect on this class extention. That is, the class self pointetr
;; is usually refferenced in the first arg register. So for Windows it would be rcx and
;; Linux would be rdi. So to write code that will assemble on both we use a register
;; that ISN'T used to pass arguments in either ABI(Not sure about OSX's ABI however)
METHOD someClass, Init, <VOIDARG>, <>, a:dword
mov rbx, thisPtr
assume rbx:ptr someClass
mov [rbx].var, a
mov rax, rbx
assume rbx:nothing
ret
ENDMETHOD
METHOD someClass, someMethod, <dword>, <>
mov rbx, thisPtr
assume rbx:ptr someClass
mov eax, [rbx].var
assume rbx:nothing
ret
ENDMETHOD
METHOD someClass, Destroy, <VOIDARG>, <>
ret
ENDMETHOD
endif ;; __CLASS_CLASS_
.code
main proc
local meh:ptr someClass
;; Create a new instance of someClass with an arg of 7
mov meh, _NEW(someClass, 7)
meh->someMethod() ;;Get meh->var value and return it in RAX
invoke printf, CSTR("class->someMethod = %i",10), rax
_DELETE(meh) ;; DIIIIIIIE!
invoke exit, 0 ;; Crashy crashy without it.
ret
main endp
end
- Output:
class->someMethod = 7
XBS
class Person {
construct=func(self,Name,Age,Gender){
self:Name=Name;
self:Age=Age;
self:Gender=Gender;
}{Name="John",Age=20,Gender="Male"};
ToString=func(self){
send self.Name+" ("+self.Gender+"): Age "+self.Age;
}
}
set John = new Person with [];
log(John::ToString());
set Jane = new Person with ["Jane",20,"Female"]
log(Jane::ToString());
- Output:
John (Male): Age 20 Jane (Female): Age 20
XLISP
(DEFINE-CLASS PROGRAMMING-LANGUAGE
(INSTANCE-VARIABLES NAME YEAR))
(DEFINE-METHOD (PROGRAMMING-LANGUAGE 'INITIALIZE X)
(SETQ NAME X)
SELF)
(DEFINE-METHOD (PROGRAMMING-LANGUAGE 'WAS-CREATED-IN X)
(SETQ YEAR X))
(DEFINE-METHOD (PROGRAMMING-LANGUAGE 'DESCRIBE)
`(THE PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE ,NAME WAS CREATED IN ,YEAR))
(DEFINE LISP (PROGRAMMING-LANGUAGE 'NEW 'LISP))
(LISP 'WAS-CREATED-IN 1958)
(DISPLAY (LISP 'DESCRIBE))
(NEWLINE)
- Output:
(THE PROGRAMMING LANGUAGE LISP WAS CREATED IN 1958)
zkl
class C{ // define class named "C", no parents or attributes
println("starting construction"); // all code outside functions is wrapped into the constructor
var v; // instance data for this class
fcn init(x) // initializer for this class, calls constructor
{ v = x }
println("ending construction of ",self);
}
c1:=C(5); // create a new instance of C
c2:=c1("hoho"); // create another instance of C
println(C.v," ",c1.v," ",c2.v);
- Output:
starting construction ending construction of Class(C) starting construction ending construction of Class(C) Void 5 hoho
C.__constructor(); // run base class constructor for giggles
C.init(456); // initialize base class without creating instance
println(C.v," ",c1.v);
- Output:
starting construction ending construction of Class(C) starting construction ending construction of Class(C) 456 5
zonnon
module Graphics;
type
{ref,public} (* class *)
Point = object(ord,abs: integer)
var
(* instance variables *)
{public,immutable} x,y: integer;
(* method *)
procedure {public} Ord():integer;
begin
return y
end Ord;
(* method *)
procedure {public} Abs():integer;
begin
return x
end Abs;
(* constructor *)
begin
self.x := ord;
self.y := abs;
end Point;
end Graphics.
module Main;
import Graphics;
var
p: Graphics.Point;
procedure Write(p: Graphics.Point);
begin
writeln('[':1,p.x:3,',':1,p.y:3,']':1)
end Write;
begin
p := new Graphics.Point(12,12);
Write(p);
writeln("Abs: ":4,p.Abs():3," Ord: ":5,p.Ord():3);
end Main.
- Output:
[ 12, 12] Abs: 12 Ord: 12
- Object oriented
- Type System
- Encyclopedia
- Programming Tasks
- Basic language learning
- 11l
- ActionScript
- Ada
- Aikido
- ALGOL 68
- AmigaE
- Arturo
- AutoHotkey
- BASIC
- BaCon
- BBC BASIC
- QuickBASIC
- Blz
- BQN
- Bracmat
- C
- C sharp
- C++
- Clojure
- COBOL
- Coco
- CoffeeScript
- Common Lisp
- Component Pascal
- Crystal
- D
- Delphi
- DM
- Dragon
- DWScript
- E
- EchoLisp
- Eiffel
- Elena
- EMal
- ERRE
- F Sharp
- Factor
- Falcon
- Fancy
- Fantom
- Forth
- Fortran
- FreeBASIC
- GLSL
- Go
- Groovy
- Haskell
- Unicon
- J
- Java
- JavaScript
- Julia
- Kotlin
- Lasso
- LFE
- Lingo
- Lisaac
- Logtalk
- Lua
- M2000 Interpreter
- MATLAB
- MiniScript
- MiniZinc
- Nanoquery
- Nemerle
- NetRexx
- Nim
- Oberon-2
- Objeck
- Object Pascal
- Objective-C
- OCaml
- Oforth
- Ol
- OoRexx
- OxygenBasic
- Oz
- Pascal
- PascalABC.NET
- Perl
- Phix
- Phix/Class
- PHL
- PHP
- PicoLisp
- Pop11
- Portugol
- PowerShell
- Processing
- PureBasic
- Python
- R
- Racket
- Raku
- RapidQ
- Raven
- REALbasic
- REBOL
- Rhovas
- Ring
- Ruby
- Rust
- Sather
- Scala
- Scheme
- Sidef
- Simula
- Slate
- Smalltalk
- SuperCollider
- Swift
- Tcl
- TclOO
- TIScript
- Transd
- TXR
- UNIX Shell
- Vala
- VBA
- Visual Basic .NET
- Visual FoxPro
- V (Vlang)
- Wren
- X86-64 Assembly
- XBS
- XLISP
- Zkl
- Zonnon
- 360 Assembly/Omit
- 6502 Assembly/Omit
- 8051 Assembly/Omit
- 8080 Assembly/Omit
- 8086 Assembly/Omit
- 68000 Assembly/Omit
- AArch64 Assembly/Omit
- ARM Assembly/Omit
- AWK/Omit
- BASIC/Omit
- Bc/Omit
- Commodore BASIC/Omit
- Dc/Omit
- GUISS/Omit
- Locomotive Basic/Omit
- M4/Omit
- Mathematica/Omit
- Maxima/Omit
- Metafont/Omit
- MIPS Assembly/Omit
- Modula-2/Omit
- Octave/Omit
- PARI/GP/Omit
- Retro/Omit
- REXX/Omit
- TI-83 BASIC/Omit
- TI-89 BASIC/Omit
- Vim Script/Omit
- Z80 Assembly/Omit
- ZX Spectrum Basic/Omit
- Pages with too many expensive parser function calls